Mirror Neuron Function Research Articles

Mirror Neuron dalam Proses Empati Manusia kerusakan / Disfungsi yang Terjadi pada Mirror Neuron

Humans are essentially created as social creatures and need each other to interact with each other. Human life coexists with other humans, so social interaction cannot be avoided. As humans, we must be sensitive and respectful of each other. One of the social interaction capitals is the ability to empathize. Empathy can be defined as when an individual can feel what others feel, and this can be explained from a neuroscience perspective. The mirror neuron is one of the small parts of the brain that has the primary function as a mirror within the individual, in other words it is the center of the process where empathy occurs. The purpose of this study is to investigate the function of mirror neurons that are closely related to human empathy processes and the damage or dysfunction that occurs in it. Through literature studies, it is known that the mirror neurons are located in some parts of brain structures; in the premotor area and the lower parietal cortex. Mirror neurons generally project events around the individuals so the emotions and such behaviors are felt by the individuals. The lack of empathy experienced by some individuals with psychopathy as well as difficulty in understanding situations or responding to social cues in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) can be due to the dysfunction in mirror neurons. However, mirror neurons dysfunction still requires further research to be able to understand the role of mirror neurons in various aspects of mental processes and human behavior.

Clinical applications and efficacy of mirror neuron function

Mirror therapy aims to restore the function of a disabled body part by using the function of mirror neurons in the brain and mimicking the physiological activity of a healthy body part. The existence of mirror neurons was first discovered in the monkey brain, then they were proven to occur in the human brain. The working pattern is always the same. If one limb moves, the correct part of the brain is activated and the mirror neurons responsible for stimulating the other limbs are activated. This is how the "mirror" in the brain works. The therapy uses a box with a mirror on one side and hides the impaired limb in it.. When a healthy limb moves, it is reflected in the mirror. The brain receives it as a movement of an inefficient limb, even though it is only an illusion. It drives the recruitment of neural joints and provides the reconstruction of neural pathways. The activity of mirror neurons is used in rehabilitation, in mirror therapy (MT), observational action therapy (AOT) and their variants, such as therapies based on Virtual Reality (VR). A significant effect of this treatment was observed in phantom limb pain (PLP) and post-stroke syndromes, such as motor aphasia, hemiparesis of the lower or upper limb. There are reports on the use of MT in some mental diseases or in autistic people in learning emotions. This review outlines the current possibilities and hopes for therapies based on mirror neuron functions based on selected cases.

Improvising Folk Songs: An Inclusive Indeterminacy

Folk Song Lab uses interactive group sessions to explore different ways by which improvisation stimulates an attitude towards the song by which it is understood as a cognitive framework that is recreated by the singer in the performance moment. It takes its point of origin in certain conceptual qualities found in traditional folk song and improvisation, stimulated using flow-inducing concepts (Csikszentmihalyi 1990. Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. New York: Harper Collins.) such as risk, mimicry, play and reorientation, and interpreted in musical terms and without written instructions. This empirical study uses particular developed improvisational methods reflecting traditional songs’ cognitive frames. The project raises questions regarding the influence of time in relation to how creativity and flow appear during improvising sessions. Some of the methods explored in the project, such as mirror singing, might be related to neuroscientific findings regarding the function of mirror-neurons, hence reflecting the possibilities for conceiving of human creativity in a collective way.

Роль зеркальных нейронов в интерпретации действий и намерений

Роль зеркальных нейронов в интерпретации действий и намерений

Representation of the observer's predicted outcome value in mirror and nonmirror neurons of macaque F5 ventral premotor cortex.

In the search for the function of mirror neurons, a previous study reported that F5 mirror neuron responses are modulated by the value that the observing monkey associates with the grasped object. Yet we do not know whether mirror neurons are modulated by the expected reward value for the observer or also by other variables, which are causally dependent on value (e.g., motivation, attention directed at the observed action, arousal). To clarify this, we trained two rhesus macaques to observe a grasping action on an object kept constant, followed by four fully predictable outcomes of different values (2 outcomes with positive and 2 with negative emotional valence). We found a consistent order in population activity of both mirror and nonmirror neurons that matches the order of the value of this predicted outcome but that does not match the order of the above-mentioned value-dependent variables. These variables were inferred from the probability not to abort a trial, saccade latency, modulation of eye position during action observation, heart rate, and pupil size. Moreover, we found subpopulations of neurons tuned to each of the four predicted outcome values. Multidimensional scaling revealed equal normalized distances of 0.25 between the two positive and between the two negative outcomes suggesting the representation of a relative value, scaled to the task setting. We conclude that F5 mirror neurons and nonmirror neurons represent the observer's predicted outcome value, which in the case of mirror neurons may be transferred to the observed object or action.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Both the populations of F5 mirror neurons and nonmirror neurons represent the predicted value of an outcome resulting from the observation of a grasping action. Value-dependent motivation, arousal, and attention directed at the observed action do not provide a better explanation for this representation. The population activity's metric suggests an optimal scaling of value representation to task setting.

Theory of Mind Deficits and Neurophysiological Operations in Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Review.

Theory of Mind (ToM) is a multifaceted skill set which encompasses a variety of cognitive and neurobiological aspects. ToM deficits have long been regarded as one of the most disabling features in individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder. One of the theories that attempts to account for these impairments is that of “broken mirror neurons”. The aim of this review is to present the most recent available studies with respect to the connection between the function of mirror neurons in individuals with ASD and ToM-reflecting sensorimotor, social and attentional stimuli. The majority of these studies approach the theory of broken mirror neurons critically. Only studies from the last 15 years have been taken into consideration. Findings from electroencephalography (EEG) studies so far indicate that further research is necessary to shed more light on the mechanisms underlying the connection(s) between ToM and neurophysiological operations.

Mirror Neurons Modeled Through Spike-Timing-Dependent Plasticity are Affected by Channelopathies Associated with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Mirror neurons fire action potentials both when the agent performs a certain behavior and watches someone performing a similar action. Here, we present an original mirror neuron model based on the spike-timing-dependent plasticity (STDP) between two morpho-electrical models of neocortical pyramidal neurons. Both neurons fired spontaneously with basal firing rate that follows a Poisson distribution, and the STDP between them was modeled by the triplet algorithm. Our simulation results demonstrated that STDP is sufficient for the rise of mirror neuron function between the pairs of neocortical neurons. This is a proof of concept that pairs of neocortical neurons associating sensory inputs to motor outputs could operate like mirror neurons. In addition, we used the mirror neuron model to investigate whether channelopathies associated with autism spectrum disorder could impair the modeled mirror function. Our simulation results showed that impaired hyperpolarization-activated cationic currents (Ih) affected the mirror function between the pairs of neocortical neurons coupled by STDP.

Shourei Prize 2. Utility of TMS for neuroscience of speech

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has widely been accepted as a useful method of non-invasive brain stimulation in neuroscience. Compared with neuroimaging and intraoperative mapping, the number of speech experiments using TMS has, however, still been small. Here, an introduction to recent TMS studies that explored speech perception and imitation is presented. Single-pulse TMS of the primary motor cortex (M1) showed a speech specific and topographically specific increase of excitability in the M1 lip area during speech perception. This may be explainable by the motor theory of speech perception and reflect the function of mirror neurons. The updated speech model is constituted of dual speech processing streams ; dorsal and ventral streams. A paired-coil stimulation demonstrates an increase in the effective connectivity from brain regions in the dorsal stream to the M1 lip area. Application of repetitive TMS (rTMS) to parts of the dorsal stream can modulate performance of phonological recognition, whereas semantic perception is altered by rTMS over the ventral pathway. Speech imitation combined with facilitatory rTMS over the left posterior inferior frontal gyrus can enhance accuracy of imitation performance. In summary, TMS is an innovative tool to understand the brain network of speech processing on perception and imitation.

Giving A Hand To Pilots With Animated Alarms Based On Mirror System Functioning

Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT) accidents are among the most frequent and deadly accidents in aviation (IATA, 2016). Pilots have sometimes only a few seconds to react to the ‘Pull-Up’ alarm that indicates an imminent collision with the ground. The auditory modality of the alarm can generate stress, which can disrupt cognitive processes (Porcelli et al., 2008) and negatively impact the ability to take timely and appropriate actions (Scholz et al., 2009). While in general humans are less sensitive to auditory stimuli than to visual stimuli (Mrugalska et al. 2016), the auditory component of the ‘Pull-Up’ alarm is loud and prominent whereas its visual component is more discreet (i.e., small text). Consequently, a first step to enhance the efficiency of this alarm would be to increase the conspicuity of its visual component by enlarging the ‘Pull-Up’ text size and to increase its salience by displacing it from the artificial horizon to the bottom of the Primary Flight Display (PFD). However, enlarging the inscription may not be sufficient to cope with the loss of cognitive performance due to stress (BEA, 2009). Previous researched found that watching an action activates premotor cortex and pre-initiates the gesture imitation through the mirror neuron system (Ocampo & Kritikos, 2011). Therefore, presenting a video of the gesture to perform (i.e., a hand pulling the sidestick), in case of imminent impact with the ground, should pre-activate the motor reaction to the alarm and then improve the pilots’ performance in terms of reaction time. The present experiment aimed at assessing whether these ‘Pull-Up’ video better performance than more conventional ‘Pull-Up’ alarms. Both behavioral and electroencephalographic (EEG) results were used to assess the best alarm design.

Conrad’s Shadow: Catastrophe, Mimesis, Theory by Nidesh Lawtoo

Reviewed by: Conrad’s Shadow: Catastrophe, Mimesis, Theory by Nidesh Lawtoo Claude Maisonnat (bio) Nidesh Lawtoo. Conrad’s Shadow: Catastrophe, Mimesis, Theory. Ann Arbor: Michigan State University Press, 2017. xiii + 420 pp. ISBN: 9781611862188. Here is an innovative book that deliberately stands apart from run-of-the-mill critical studies of Conrad’s works. The project is justifiably ambitious and foregrounds its theoretical bias as early as the subtitle which could act as a caveat to some. However, that Lawtoo qualifies his book as theory-oriented should not discourage those who are not theoretically oriented because it is a tightly-knit and thoroughgoing demonstration that is at the same time well-written and eminently readable. The unifying concept which connects all the chapters of the book is that of mimesis, already implicitly contained in the word “shadow,” but it is more than that. It should not simply be understood as a mimetic approach to the old [End Page 201] romantic topos of the figure of the double but most convincingly as an exploration of hitherto largely ignored aspects of modernity. Lawtoo’s starting point is the idea that mimesis is a protean concept in search of an identity and to a large extent the whole book can be read as an attempt to explore the various facets of that identity, touching on subjects like post-colonial studies, new materialism, environmental studies, and even the neurosciences. The danger of resorting to such a unifying concept is, of course, that it entails a number of repetitions, but Lawtoo’s efforts to overcome the conundrum of relying on a single hypothesis to account for human behavior and artistic creation are eventually rewarded. Far from diluting the notion by widening its scope and thus threatening to blunt its cutting edge and diminish its efficiency, he skilfully succeeds in demonstrating its relevance to new fields of expertise like the theory of catastrophe, the emergence of the Anthropocene, the ethics of sharing, and the threat of horrorism, among others. His acute understanding of theoretical stakes is nothing new as he had already illustrated this in his previous and successful book on Heart of Darkness and Contemporary Thought. Lawtoo’s method of textual investigation is original and always the same: he focuses on a particular episode which could appear minor to some, and explores its many theoretical implications, in the meantime showing why it is crucial and sheds some light on the whole text. This is something of a technical feat, as it ultimately proves highly convincing and satisfactory. This is the case, for instance, of the significance of the last duel between d’Hubert and Féraud in “The Duel,” interpreted as a way of putting an end to the repetition of violence, or the storm scene on board the Sephora in “The Secret Sharer,” revisited in the light of the Anthropocene and the ethics of catastrophe. The book itself with its 420 pages, 361 of them being devoted to a series of essays on individual works, is composed of three main parts: Ethics of Catastrophe, Anthropology of Frenzy, and Metaphysics of Tragedy, followed by a coda entitled “Conrad’s Neuroplasticity,” the latter being perhaps not indispensable. It looks at A Personal Record and Under Western Eyes, exploring briefly such concepts as the neuro turn and brain plasticity, and attempts to account for the question of language and adoption. The whole comprises eight chapters altogether. In a lengthy but necessary and helpful introduction of some forty pages, Lawtoo explains what he means by the figure of the artist as double beyond the mere homo duplex cliché that Conrad applied to himself. Then he considers his own position as a Janus-faced reader who wants to be as much critically oriented as he is theoretically oriented as far as his epistemological approach is concerned. This leads him to assess his position as a protean theorist who covers multiple cultural grounds encompassing psychoanalysis, sociology, psychology, anthropology, post-colonial studies, [End Page 202] media studies, affect theory, and even neurology with the discovery of the function of mirror neurons in the way the brain works. In this last instance, he threads his path cautiously, and rightly so, because the...

Mirroring 'meaningful' actions: Sensorimotor learning modulates imitation of goal-directed actions.

Imitation is important in the development of social and technological skills throughout the lifespan. Experiments investigating the acquisition and modulation of imitation (and of its proposed neural substrate, the mirror neuron system) have produced evidence that the capacity for imitation depends on associative learning in which connections are formed between sensory and motor representations of actions. However, evidence that the development of imitation depends on associative learning has been found only for non-goal-directed actions. One reason for the lack of research on goal-directed actions is that imitation of such actions is commonly confounded with the tendency to respond in a spatially compatible manner. However, since the most prominent account of mirror neuron function, and hence of imitation, suggests that these cells encode goal-directed actions, it is important to establish whether sensorimotor learning can also modulate imitation of goal-directed actions. Experiment 1 demonstrated that imitation of goal-directed grasping can be measured while controlling for spatial compatibility, and Experiment 2 showed that this imitation effect can be modulated by sensorimotor training. Together, these data support the hypothesis that the capacity for behavioural imitation and the properties of the mirror neuron system are constructed in the course of development through associative learning.

The function of mirror neurons in the learning process

In the last years, Neurosciences have developed very much, being elaborated many important theories scientific research in the field. The main goal of neuroscience is to understand how groups of neurons interact to create the behavior. Neuroscientists studying the action of molecules, genes and cells. It also explores the complex interactions involved in motion perception, thoughts, emotions and learning. Brick fundamental nervous system is the nerve cell, neuron. Neurons exchange information by sending electrical signals and chemical through connections called synapses. Discovered by a group of Italian researchers from the University of Parma, neurons - mirror are a special class of nerve cells played an important role in the direct knowledge, automatic and unconscious environment. These cortical neurons are activated not only when an action is fulfilled, but when we see how the same action is performed by someone else, they represent neural mechanism by which the actions, intentions and emotions of others can be understood automatically. In childhood neurons - mirror are extremely important. Thanks to them we learned a lot in the early years: smile, to ask for help and, in fact, all the behaviors and family and group norms. People learn by what they see and sense the others. Neurons - mirror are important to understanding the actions and intentions of other people and learn new skills through mirror image. They are involved in planning and controlling actions, abstract thinking and memory. If a child observes an action, neurons - mirror is activated and forming new neural pathways as if even he takes that action. Efficient activity of mirror neurons leads to good development in all areas at a higher emotional intelligence and the ability to empathize with others.

Impact of thousand-and-one amino acid 2 kinase mediated neurodifferentiation in cerebral cortex and impairment of mirror neuron pathways on autism spectrum disorders

An understanding of how neurons develop their morphology and their distinct physiology is the key to the elucidation of the mechanisms underlying sophisticated cognitive functions in normal and disease conditions. Evidence suggests that neurodevelopmental disorders with delayed onset, such as autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) might be a consequence of aberrant dendritic arborization. This review is dedicated toward the discussion of a new pathway that specifically affects the formation of basal dendrites and axonal projections in cortical pyramidal neurons. With reference to this pathway, the function of thousand-and-one amino acid 2 kinase, in relation to dendrite morphogenesis has been elaborated. Mirror neuron system dysfunction may underlie a self-other matching impairment which has been suggested to account for autism. The hypotheses of deficit an impaired mirror neuron function in autism have now been well supported by studies employing a range of methodologies. However, underlying mechanisms require further exploration to explain how mirror neurons may be involved in attention and metalizing processes. It seems possible that different sub-populations of mirror neurons, distinct in particular anatomical regions of the brain, contribute differentially to social cognitive functions. Mirror neuron networks dysfunction in ASD-affected individuals leading to dampened imitation learning, misguided development of “egocentrism” and even failure to comprehend the intention behind a motor act. While it seems clear that autism is associated with impaired development of embodied aspects of cognition, the ways that mirror neurons contribute to these brain-behavior links are likely to be complex and demands further research.

The myth of mirror neurons: the real neuroscience of communication and cognition

In The Myth of Mirror Neurons, neuroscientist Gregory Hickok re-examines the mirror neuron story and finds that it is built on a tenuous foundation-a pair of co-dependent assumptions about mirror neuron activity and human understanding. Drawing on a broad range of observations from work on animal behaviour, modern neuroimaging, neurological disorders and more, Hickok argues that the foundational assumptions fall flat in light of the facts. He then explores alternative explanations of mirror neuron function while illuminating crucial questions about human cognition and brain function: Why do humans imitate so prodigiously? How different are the left and right hemispheres of the brain? Why do we have two visual systems? Do we need to be able to talk to understand speech? What's going wrong in autism? Can humans read minds? The Myth of Mirror Neurons not only delivers an instructive tale about the course of scientific progress-from discovery to theory to revision-but also provides deep insights into the organisation and function of the human brain and the nature of communication and cognition.

Action processing and mirror neuron function in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: an fMRI study.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a highly debilitating and rapidly fatal neurodegenerative disease. It has been suggested that social cognition may be affected, such as impairment in theory of mind (ToM) ability. Despite these findings, research in this area is scarce and the investigation of neural mechanisms behind such impairment is absent. Nineteen patients with ALS and eighteen healthy controls participated in this study. Because the mirror neuron system (MNS) is thought to be involved in theory of mind, we first implemented a straightforward action-execution and observation task to assess basic MNS function. Second, we examined the social-cognitive ability to understand actions of others, which is a component of ToM. We used fMRI to assess BOLD activity differences between groups during both experiments. Theory of mind was also measured behaviorally using the Reading the Mind in the Eyes test (RME). ALS patients displayed greater BOLD activity during the action-execution and observation task, especially throughout right anterior cortical regions. These areas included the right inferior operculum, premotor and primary motor regions, and left inferior parietal lobe. A conjunction analysis showed significantly more co-activated voxels during both the observation and action-execution conditions in the patient group throughout MNS regions. These results support a compensatory response in the MNS during action processing. In the action understanding experiment, healthy controls performed better behaviorally and subsequently recruited greater regions of activity throughout the prefrontal cortex and middle temporal gyrus. Lastly, action understanding performance was able to cluster patients with ALS into high and lower performing groups, which then differentiated RME performance. Collectively, these data suggest that social cognition, particularly theory of mind, may be affected in a subset of patients with ALS. This impairment may be related to functioning of the MNS and other regions related to action processing and understanding. Implications for future research are discussed.

Understanding intentions from actions: Direct perception, inference, and the roles of mirror and mentalizing systems.

This review asks whether observers can obtain information about others' intentions from observation of their actions; and if so, whether this process is performed using direct perceptual or inferential processes (prominent examples of each being the intention understanding theory of mirror neuron function, and mentalizing accounts of intention understanding, respectively). I propose four conditions that should be fulfilled in order to support a direct perception account, and suggest that only two of these conditions are supported by the existing data. I then propose and review three further sources of evidence which have the potential to inform this debate, concluding that the data do not support the direct perception account. In particular, mirror neurons may be involved in lower-level processes of action perception, but there is no evidence to support their involvement in the type of higher-level intention understanding that is proposed by the direct perception account.

EndosymbioticActinidicArchaeal Modulated Mirror Quantal Perceptive Neurons Mediate Consciousness and Functions as Quantal Observer

Introduction : The human endosymbiotic actinidic archaea catabolises cholesterol and uses it for its energy metabolism. The ring oxidation of cholesterol generates pyruvate which enters the GABA shunt pathway resulting in the formation of succinyl CoA and glycine used for porphyrin synthesis. The side chain oxidation of cholesterol results in steroid synthesis and the generation of the steroidal glycoside digoxin which serves as an endogenous regulator of the sodium potassium pump inhibiting it. The archaea are magnetotactic and contain the dipolar porphyrins and magnetite. Digoxin by inhibiting the sodium potassium ATPase generates a pumped phonon system involving dipolar porphyrins and magnetite. This generates a frohlich model of Bose-Einstein condensate at normal temperature resulting in quantal perception. The quantal perception can result in perceiving low level of EMF from the environment. This can generate conscious perception. The generation of porphyrins and digoxin in actinidic archaeal neurons was tested in disorders of consciousness schizophrenia and autism. Schizophrenia and autism are both disorders of consciousness. Materials and Methods: Freshly diagnosed schizophrenia and autism based on DSM IV criteria were chosen for the study. Serum cytochrome 450, digoxin synthesis and porphyrin synthesis were studied. There were 10 patients in each group and each patient had an age and sex matched healthy control selected randomly from the general population. The blood samples were drawn in the fasting state before treatment was initiated. Plasma from fasting heparinised blood was used and the experimental protocol was as follows (I) Plasma+phosphate buffered saline, (II) same as I+cholesterol substrate, (III) same as II+cerium 0.1 mg/ml, (IV) same as II+ciprofloxacine and doxycycline each in a concentration of 1 mg/ml. Cholesterol substrate was prepared as described by Richmond. Aliquots were withdrawn at zero time immediately after mixing and after incubation at 37 o C for 1 hour. The following estimations were carried out:- Cytochrome F420, digoxin and ALA.Cytochrome F420 was estimated flourimetrically (excitation wavelength 420 nm and emission wavelength 520 nm). Results: Plasma of control subjects showed increased levels of the above mentioned parameters with after incubation for 1 hour and addition of cholesterol substrate resulted in still further significant increase in these parameters. The plasma of patients showed similar results but the extent of increase was more. The addition of antibiotics to the control plasma caused a decrease in all the parameters while addition of cerium increased their levels. The addition of antibiotics to the patient’s plasma caused a decrease in all the parameters while addition of cerium increased their levels but the extent of change was more in patient’s sera as compared to controls. Conclusion : The actinidic archaeal induced quantal perceptive mirror neuron function is hyperactive in both disorders. This results in dysfunction of consciousness due to increase in actinidic archaeal density, digoxin synthesis and porphyrin synthesis. Perception occurs predominantly by quantal perceptive mechanism in schizophrenia and autism. Thus the observer and observed depends on actinidic archaeal induced quantal perceptive mirror neuron function. The world as such is an illusion created by the inter-relationship between the observed and observer mediated by quantal perceptive mirror neurons. The quantal perceptive image of the world and the observer can exist as multiple possibilities in multiple universes leading to the phenomena of eternal existence in multiverse universes.

Synchrony and motor mimicking in chimpanzee observational learning.

Cumulative tool-based culture underwrote our species' evolutionary success, and tool-based nut-cracking is one of the strongest candidates for cultural transmission in our closest relatives, chimpanzees. However the social learning processes that may explain both the similarities and differences between the species remain unclear. A previous study of nut-cracking by initially naïve chimpanzees suggested that a learning chimpanzee holding no hammer nevertheless replicated hammering actions it witnessed. This observation has potentially important implications for the nature of the social learning processes and underlying motor coding involved. In the present study, model and observer actions were quantified frame-by-frame and analysed with stringent statistical methods, demonstrating synchrony between the observer's and model's movements, cross-correlation of these movements above chance level and a unidirectional transmission process from model to observer. These results provide the first quantitative evidence for motor mimicking underlain by motor coding in apes, with implications for mirror neuron function.

목적성 행동 모방학습을 통한 의도 인식을 위한 거울뉴런 시스템 계산 모델

The understanding of another's behavior is a fundamental cognitive ability for primates including humans. Recent neuro-physiological studies suggested that there is a direct matching algorithm from visual observation onto an individual's own motor repertories for interpreting cognitive ability. The mirror neurons are known as core regions and are handled as a functionality of intent recognition on the basis of imitative learning of an observed action which is acquired from visual-information of a goal-directed action. In this paper, we addressed previous works used to model the function and mechanisms of mirror neurons and proposed a computational model of a mirror neuron system which can be used in human-robot interaction environments. The major focus of the computation model is the reproduction of an individual's motor repertory with different embodiments. The model's aim is the design of a continuous process which combines sensory evidence, prior task knowledge and a goal-directed matching of action observation and execution. We also propose a biologically inspired plausible equation model.

The origin and function of mirror neurons: the missing link.

We argue, by analogy to the neural organization of the object recognition system, that demonstration of modulation of mirror neurons by associative learning does not imply absence of genetic adaptation. Innate connectivity defines the types of processes mirror neurons can participate in while allowing for extensive local plasticity. However, the proper function of these neurons remains to be worked out.