Minimum Breakdown Voltage Research Articles

1.8-µm pitch, 47-ps jitter SPAD array in a 130 nm SiGe BiCMOS process

We introduce the world’s first SPAD family design in 130 nm SiGe BiCMOS process. At 1.8 µm, we achieved the smallest pitch on record thanks to guard-ring sharing techniques, while keeping a relatively high fill factor of 24.2%. 4×4 SPAD arrays with two parallel selective readout circuits were designed to explore crosstalk and scalability. The SPAD family has a minimum breakdown voltage of 11 V, a maximum PDP of 40.6%, and a typical timing jitter of 47 ps FWHM. The development of silicon SPADs in SiGe process paves the way to Ge-on-Si SPADs for SWIR applications, and to cryogenic optical interfaces for quantum applications.

Low breakdown voltage and CMOS compatible avalanche photodiode based on SOI substrate.

In this work, we present a novel, to the best of our knowledge, lateral avalanche photodiode (APD) with low breakdown voltage and high bandwidth which has the potential to serve as a core device in future large-scale advanced optoelectronic hybrid chips. By taking advantage of a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) substrate combined with a separation absorption multiplier (SAM) structure, the demonstrated APDs exhibit a high gain of 148. Furthermore, the minimum breakdown voltage of the measured device is 6.1 V, which represents the lowest breakdown voltage for Si-APD, making it compatible with the existing CMOS technology for low voltage operation. Benefiting from an ultra-thin top silicon and lateral SAM structure, the problem of edge breakdown has been completely solved. Additionally, a set of device arrays with absorption and avalanche regions of different sizes is also manufactured and compared. Our findings indicate that the proposed APD has fascinating application prospects in the CMOS process-based LIDAR chips.

A Generalized Townsend's Theory for Paschen Curves in Planar, Cylindrical, and Spherical Geometries in Planetary Atmospheres

AbstractIn this work, we focus on plasma discharges produced between two electrodes with a high potential difference, resulting in the ionization of the neutral particles supporting a current in a gaseous medium. At low currents and low temperatures, this process can create luminescent emissions: glow and corona discharges. The parallel plate geometry used in Townsend's theory lets us develop a theoretical formalism, with explicit solutions for the critical voltage effectively reproducing experimental Paschen curves. However, most discharge processes occur in non‐parallel plate geometries, such as discharges between particles in multiphase systems and between cylindrical conductors. Here, we propose a generalization of the classic parallel plate configurations to concentric spherical and coaxial cylindrical geometries in Earth, Mars, Titan, and Venus atmospheres. In a spherical case, a small radius effectively represents a sharp tip rod, while larger, centimeter‐scale radii represent blunted tips. In cylindrical geometries, small radii resemble thin wires. We solve continuity equations in the gap and estimate a critical radius and minimum breakdown voltage that allows the formation of a glow discharge. We show that glow coronæ form more easily in Mars's low‐pressure, CO2‐rich atmosphere than in Earth's high‐pressure, N2‐rich atmosphere. Additionally, we present breakdown criteria for Titan and Venus, two planets where discharge processes have been postulated. We further demonstrate that critical voltage minima occur at 0.5 cm⋅Torr for all three investigated geometries, suggesting easier initiation around millimeter‐size particles in dust and water clouds. This approach could be readily extended to examine other multiphase flows with inertial particles.

The effect of micro-gap discharge paths on ionization coefficients and similarity theory

In order to investigate the impact of discharge paths at the micrometer scale on breakdown, two sets of different electrodes were arranged with electrode gaps ranging from 10 μm to 100 μm and gas pressures varying from 1 kPa to 100 kPa. The research has revealed that without an insulating layer at the edge of the electrode, when the product of gas pressure (p) and electrode gap (d) is less than 60Pa·cm, the number of positive ions cannot satisfy the conditions for self-sustaining discharge at the electrode gap (d). As a result, the discharge path varies along a longer path (s) to satisfy the conditions for self-sustained discharge, thereby maintaining the minimum breakdown voltage. This long-path discharge mechanism affects the ionization coefficient, resulting in an inconsistency between the ionization coefficient ratio at different distances and their respective scale factor (k) values. Therefore, on a micrometer scale, changes in the path make the application of similarity theory no longer applicable.

Electron Impact Cross Sections and Transport Studies of C3F6O

Electron impact scattering from C3F6O is studied in this work. The R-matrix method was used for the calculations of elastic, momentum transfer, and excitation cross sections. The attachment cross section was obtained through a parametric estimator based on the R-matrix outputs. The Binary-Encounter-Bethe (BEB) method was used for computing the ionization cross section. The obtained cross section set was used for the transport studies using the BOLSIG+ code, which is a two-term Boltzmann equation solver. The present calculation was performed for steady-state Townsend experimental conditions for E/N, covering a range of 100–1000 Td. The critical dielectric strength of pure C3F6O was found to be 475 Td, which is much greater than that of SF6 (355 Td). The effect of the addition of different buffer gases, such as CO2, N2, and O2, was also examined. For the C3F6O–CO2, C3F6O–N2, and C3F6O–O2 mixtures with 65%, 55%, and 60% C3F6O, respectively, the critical dielectric strength was determined to be essentially the same as that of pure SF6. The presence of synergism was confirmed for these gas mixtures. We further derived the Paschen curve using a fitting method with the transport parameters as the basic inputs. The minimum breakdown voltage of C3F6O accounted for only 55% of that of SF6. The buffer gas mixture improved the condition; however, the performance of CO2 and O2 mixtures was not satisfactory. The addition of N2 as the buffer gas significantly improved the breakdown property of the gas. The mixture of ≥99% of N2 or ≤1% of C3F6O gave a better breakdown characteristic than SF6. Any proportion ≥90% of N2 or ≤10% of C3F6O was suitable in the higher pressure ranges. The present work demonstrates the potential of C3F6O as a substitute gas for SF6 with a negligible environmental threat.

The sensitivity analysis of dynamic electric breakdown damage model and simulation of granite by high voltage electric pulse

The use of high-voltage electrical pulse (HVEP) technology for improving the rate of penetration in deep, complex formations has been reported; however, its rock fragmentation mechanism is not fully understood, and the parametric design of electric drilling tools is not perfect. This research paper realized the whole process of single-pulse HVEP rock-breaking by using the electric breakdown model, combining circuit parameter coupling, Kirchhoff’s law, electric breakdown criterion, heat transfer process, and solid mechanical field. The sensitivity simulation of HVEP rock-breaking parameters, which considers the structural parameters of pulse power supply, the deterioration of rock during the electrical breakdown process, the correlation between dynamic dielectric strength of rock and time, and rock heterogeneity, is analyzed. The simulation results indicate that the shape of the plasma channel has little relationship with the pulse peak voltage, and the rock-breaking volume of a single pulse is positively related to the pulse peak voltage; the electrode spacing is positively correlated with the breakdown voltage of the rock in a first-order function shape and has a positive correlation with the failure volume; large electrode spacing can promote HVEP rock-breaking; electrode tilt has little effect on the minimum breakdown voltage and failure volume, and its optimal design should be combined with the flow field analysis of the electric bit structure; the heterogeneity index of granite results in breakdown voltage amplitudes within 3 kV and differences in the fragmentation effect of HVEP. The research results can be used as theoretical support for optimizing HVEP matching drilling tools.

The Plasma Ozonizer System for Mangosteen Storage Container to Preserve the Quality of Mangosteen

This research aims to produce ozone using a dielectric barrier discharge to extend the shelf life and preserve the quality of mangosteen. The optimum condition of this system was a minimum breakdown voltage of about 6 kVp-p, a resonance frequency of 224 kHz, and an oxygen flow rate of 2 L/min. The findings demonstrate that the maximal ethylene concentration value of treated fruit with ozone from oxygen flow rates 2 L/min lower than untreated fruit was approximately 11-fold. The L*, a*, b*, weight loss percentage, pericarp firmness value, and sensory evaluation were used to assess the quality of mangosteen. Compared to control fruit at 15 °C, fruit treated with ozone can have a prolonged shelf life of 9 days. Furthermore, assessing the quality and sensory score indicates that ozonation preserves the sensory quality of mangosteen. The weight loss percentage and pericarp firmness of fruit-treated ozone compared with the control were decreased by 3.34% and increased by 11.18 N, respectively. The sensory score of the fruit treated with ozone was higher than the control fruit, significantly different (p < 0.05).

Digitalisation and Modernisation of Hydropower Operating Facilities to Support the Colombian Energy Mix Flexibility

Hydropower plants cover almost 70% of the Colombian electrical demand, were built several decades ago, and present low levels of digitisation compared to other modern power-generation technologies, e.g., wind turbines, solar PV plants, and recently buil hydroelectric plants t. Renovating power plant equipment and investing in modernisation and digitisation can significantly increase the plant flexibility. Those actions will increase a plant’s operational safety and contribute to the solution of environmental and social problems. This work presents the actions followed to extend the lifetime of a 1000 MW hydropower plant operating for more than 40 years. Activities included a residual life status evaluation of generators and component upgrades, among others. The rehabilitation and digitalisation of the generation units allow their integration and remote monitoring so that diagnostic actions can be carried out during a continuous and economically sustainable operation. These activities complement the plan implemented by the company during the last decade to ensure the plant’s operation for another 50 years and its respective integration with nonconventional generation systems at the national level. Besides the generator’s life extension, the main result of rewinding is an increase in the Minimum Breakdown Voltage by almost 140% (from 38.4 kV to 95.6 kV) with respect to the current operation state, ensuring its operation for the following years.

Experimental Platform for Measuring Electrical Discharges in Long Air Gaps With Floating Objects and Its Applications Under Lightning Impulse

Long air gaps containing floating objects are common gaps in power transmission and substation projects. Investigating the discharge mechanism of gaps helps improve the power grid operational reliability. This article presents an experimental platform for measuring the electrical discharges in long air gaps with floating objects, which can measure the applied voltage and the discharge current, and capture the images of the discharge process. By analyzing these measured data, the breakdown voltage characteristics of the gap can be explained. In a long air gap with a floating conductive object under lightning impulse, as the floating object moves from the high voltage (HV) electrode to the ground potential electrode, the breakdown voltage first decreases and then increases, producing a minimum breakdown voltage area (MBVA). In this article, the experimental platform was used to explain the formation of MBVA as an application example. The results show that the formation of MBVA is related to the timing relationship between the breakdown of sub-gap 1 and the discharge in sub-gap 2 entering the final jump. The minimum breakdown voltage occurs at the shortest sub-gap 1 ensuring that the discharge in sub-gap 2 enters the final jump just as sub-gap 1 is broken down.

Hydrogen Production through Water Vapors using Optimized Corona-DBD Hybrid Plasma Micro-Reactor

Hydrogen as secondary energy carrier is one of the promising routes to meet renewable and sustainable energy demand. Hydrogen production using water plasmolysis, so far, has been considered as energy intensive. However, recent developments in the field of microplasmas has reduced energy requirement of water plasmolysis on par with electrolysis. However, there’s still room for improvement as water vapors dissociation efficiencies are less than thermodynamic and kinetic limits. One of the ways to do that is to split microchannel in plasma into sub-micron channels by packing beads inside the reactor. The current study investigates the plasmolysis of water vapours (steam) and argon gas with (1) empty channel plasma reactor and (2) glass beads packed plasma reactor. A custom-made Corona-DBD hybrid microplasma reactor has been designed and employed for water steam plasmolysis. This study aims to investigate the feasibility of water vapors dissociating into hydrogen at a relatively small interelectrode gap at atmospheric pressure. The minimum breakdown voltage has been found to be 3.7 kVpk-pk at 5 mA current. The maximum hydrogen production rate was observed 23.9 g/kWh at optimized conditions for the glass beads packed plasma reactor. So, in current study glass beads packed plasma microreactor yielded 23.9g of H2/kWh which is significantly higher than any previously published study

Experimental study of the modified Paschen's law: glow discharge of Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), Methanol (CH3OH) and its mixture

A low-pressure ethanol and methanol discharge produced by a DC electric field was studied experimentally, analyzing the disruptive voltage between parallel electrodes with a circular geometry as function of pressure and distance according with the Paschen’s law, this states that the breakdown voltage is a function of the product of gas pressure and distance following the relationship: VB = f(pd). Detailed knowledge of the minimum breakdown voltage required to initiate the ethanol–methanol discharge will be useful to providing important information for future experiments and applications. In this experiment, a cylindrical chamber was used to generate a glow discharge of the ethanol (CH3CH2OH), methanol (CH3OH), and 50% mixture, over a pressure range of 0.07–5.00 Torr. Optical emission spectroscopy was performed in the wavelength range of 200–900 nm. The Paschen curves, measured experimentally for ethanol and methanol are presented, taking in account the coefficient obtained using the variation in Paschen’s law as a function of the distance and radius of the electrodes (d/r).

Study on electrostatic discharge (ESD) characteristics of ultra-thin dielectric film

Electrostatic discharge (ESD) event usually destroys the electrical properties of dielectric films, resulting in product failure. In this work, the breakdown characteristic of machine mode (MM) ESD on three different nano size films of head gimble assemble are obtained experimentally. The breakdown voltage and thickness parameters show a positive proportional relationship, but they are generally very low and have large discrete characteristics (∼30%). The maximum and minimum breakdown voltages of the tested samples are 1.08 V and 0.46 V, which are far lower than the requirement of the current standard (25 V). In addition, the judgment criterion of product damage is given, and the relationship between discharge voltage polarity, initial resistance and breakdown voltage is studied. Finally, the theoretical analysis of the breakdown characteristic law has been given.

Numerical Study on Operation Optimization of Atmospheric Radio-Frequency Glow Discharges Modulated by Pulses

In recent years, pulse-modulated radio frequency (RF) plasmas have gained considerable interest in applications due to the advantages in reducing gas temperature and power consumption. In this article, the optimizations of operation mode in atmospheric pulse modulation RF discharges are investigated by a 1-D fluid model. From simulation data, the breakdown voltage and <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">${{\alpha -{\gamma }}}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> mode transition voltage both decrease as the duty cycle increases; however, a minimum breakdown voltage can be observed while altering the modulation frequency at a constant duty cycle, and the transition voltage always increases with the modulation frequency. The underpinning physics of the operation regime in pulsed RF discharges is discussed in detail by investigating the effects of the duration of the power-on phase based on the computational results. Increasing the number of applied RF cycles during the power-on phase contributes greatly to the breakdown and mode transition. This study can effectively deepen the understanding of the effects of pulse modulation in RF discharges and suggest ways to further optimize the pulse-modulated RF discharges.

Morphology evolution and breakdown mechanism of cross‐linked polyethylene (XLPE)–silicone rubber (SiR) interface induced by silicone grease diffusion

Silicone grease (SG) is used for lubrication during cable accessory installation and can penetrate into the silicone rubber (SiR), leading to properties deterioration of the SiR. In this study, the effects of SG on the breakdown characteristics of the cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE)–SiR interface are investigated. First, the variation of the XLPE–SiR interface breakdown voltage with SG coating time is experimentally explored. The interface breakdown voltage significantly increases after SG is applied, remains stable for coating times of up to approximately 144 h and then rapidly decreases; the minimum interface breakdown voltage is lower than that without the SG coating. Next, the effects of SG on the chemical composition and surface topography of the SiR are examined by infrared spectroscopy and optical profilometry, respectively. The SG penetration does not change the functional groups of the SiR but significantly increases its surface roughness. Finally, the interface electric-field distribution after coating with SG is analysed by finite-element simulation, revealing that the residual SG at the interface distorts the interface electric field after a long coating time. The increase in the SiR surface roughness caused by SG diffusion and the interface electric-field distortion caused by the residual SG together lead to the decrease of the interface breakdown voltage.

Theoretical and numerical studies of breakdown phenomena triggered by microparticle in nitrogen gaps

This paper studies microparticle-triggered breakdown phenomena in mm-scale nitrogen gaps based on theoretical analysis and numerical simulation. Secondary electron and field emission contributions are both considered when predicting the microparticle-initiated breakdown voltage. In the present model, the ionization coefficient of the microscale discharge is modified to recognize the significant reduction in the number of collisions that occurs when a microparticle is present. The theoretical analysis indicates that small particles have little influence on the gas-gap breakdown voltage unless field-emission effects are dominant. However, when large microparticles (radius 50 μm) are present, a significant decrease (more than 20%) in the minimum breakdown voltage can be observed regardless of the particle position in the gas gap. Therefore, one should endeavor to exclude large microparticles from the discharge process. A fluid model is then used to simulate the microparticle-initiated breakdown process in a gas switch. The microparticle radius is 10 μm and the distance between the microparticle and cathode is 1 μm. It can be found that the electrode–particle microdischarge generates regions of high-density plasma that finally trigger main-gap breakdown when a voltage of 2.5 kV–3.5 kV is applied. The calculated results are consistent with our theoretical analysis. This paper provides a quantitative research method to evaluate the influence of microparticles on gas breakdown and contributes to improving gas-switch insulation performance.

О минимальном напряжении статического пробоя газоразрядного промежутка

Based on the self-sustaining condition of the discharge, a theoretical analysis was carried out in order to identify the minimum possible breakdown voltage. It is shown that a weak nonuniformity of the electric field in the discharge gap leads to an increase in the static breakdown voltage in comparison with the Paschen’s law. A strong nonuniformity of the field in diodes of coaxial and spherical geometry also cannot provide a decrease in the minimum breakdown voltage in comparison with the case of a plane-parallel gap. It is proved that of all symmetric geometries of a gas-filled diode, the planar geometry has the lowest breakdown voltage.

Slip Ring Test Assembly With Increased Breakdown Voltage Limit for High-Voltage Bus Satellites

In this article, a setup including a passive gas breakdown mitigation technique for satellite slip ring assemblies (SRAs) is introduced and tested. The setup features a central conducting ring, separated from two external conducting limiting discs (LDs) by insulating rings. The characteristic breakdown curves are measured as a function of the surrounding pressure by biasing the central ring and setting the LDs at a variable voltage. The minimum breakdown voltage is increased from ~420 to ~860 V by biasing the LDs at one half of the voltage applied to the central ring. This solution is further applied on a test-SRA that includes the main features of a standard cylindrical SRA: a stack of conducting rings on which conducting brushes slip to ensure the electrical contact between moving components. The minimum of the breakdown curve is raised from ~400 V for the grounded LDs to ~600 V for the passively biased LDs. This result confirms the possibility to improve SRA protection for the entire pressure range encountered by a satellite during its operational life, from atmospheric pressure to in-orbit high-vacuum, meeting the requirements for the next generation of satellites.

Influence of cathode material type on the electrical breakdown behaviors of DC discharge

Paschen curves were studied using different cathode materials such as magnesium, zinc, and carbon graphite by discharge in argon gas of a pressure range between 0.08 and 3 Torr using a parallel plates configuration. The first and second Townsend coefficients (α and γ, respectively) and the ionization efficiency (η) of different cathode materials were deduced from Paschen curves as a function of the reduced field (E/P). The minimum breakdown voltage was found to be about 242 V for Mg material, which has the lowest work function, while carbon graphite has a higher breakdown voltage of 283 V due to its higher work function. The second coefficient γ was increased as a function of E/P and has higher values for materials of lower work functions, and a similar trend of γ is obtained as a function of the ion mean energy. On the other hand, the first coefficient α has a reverse behavior with both E/P and the work function of the cathode materials compared with the second coefficient. The ionization efficiency of the three cathode materials is identical, as η depends only on the gas properties and not the cathode material. η has a maximum value of about 0.025 V−1 for an E/P of about 185 Vcm−1Torr−1, corresponding to the maximum ionizing ability of electrons. The validation of the breakdown results has been confirmed by conferring with other published experimental measurements.

Influence of conductivities on electrical breakdown of water under microsecond pulsed voltage

A study of the electrical breakdown of water under microsecond pulsed voltages has been performed. The influence of conductivities (350–1550 μS/cm) has been reported in the needle-plate configuration. Both positive and negative applied voltages (10–30 kV) have been adopted to study the streamer propagation and breakdown phenomena. Three streamer modes are observed in our experiment, and the morphologies of streamers at different conductivities are compared. Increasing the conductivity leads to a thinner gaseous layer and stronger luminance for all streamers. However, the polarity effect of the applied voltages causes differences in the mobility of charges in water and results in different propagation velocities. The minimum breakdown voltage at different polarities exhibits different trends for positive subsonic streamers and negative subsonic streamers. This paper has evaluated the shock wave intensity and bubble dynamics after the breakdown of the water gap. The results show that the relationship of the peak pressure (Pm) and the residual energy of the capacitor at the breakdown time (Wb) is consistent and stable. The bubble dynamics and shock wave propagation are less affected by the water conductivity.

Simulator of Planar Electrodes Plasma Characteristics using Different Gases

Simulator Plasma Source for Planar Electrodes, SPSPE, is designed to verify the experimental results of planar anode and cathode which are obtained previously using nitrogen gas. Experimentally, the glow discharge is carried out at operating pressure values in the range of 0.1- 0.6 Torr and the disc anode - disc cathode distance equal to 10 cm using nitrogen gas. The comparison between SPSPE and the experimental values at different product of pressure and distance values for breakdown voltage, discharge current and the second Townsend coefficient using nitrogen gas is made. It is found a good match between SPSPE and the experimental values. Also, the first Townsend coefficient is calculated by SPSPE at different product of pressure and distance values using nitrogen gas, while breakdown voltage and discharge current are calculated by SPSPE at different product of pressure and distance values using nitrogen, argon and carbon dioxide gases. It is found that the minimum breakdown voltage values are equal to 472.77, 232.26 and 349.27 volts at minimum product of pressure and distance values equal to 1.5, 1 and 0.75 Torr.cm using nitrogen, argon and carbon dioxide gases, respectively. Also, it is found that the minimum discharge current values are equal to 0.5228 mA and 3.65 mA at minimum product of pressure and distance value equal to 1 Torr.cm using nitrogen and argon gases, respectively. While minimum discharge current value equal to 7.8 mA is obtained at minimum product of pressure and distance value equal to 0.75 Torr.cm using carbon dioxide gas.