Military Fort Research Articles

Domestic Cognitive Model: Figurative Signs of the <i>Moon</i> and the <i>Sky</i> Concepts

The article describes a domestic cognitive model objectified by figurative signs of the moon and the sky concept structures. The authors determined the set of variants of the domestic cognitive model by updating the cognitive signs of the moon and the sky concepts. Using conceptual, descriptive, and interpretive analyses, they also highlighted the figurative signs realized in the cognitive models of the house. The research generalized the figurative and architectural signs of the Russian linguaculture, assigned to the moon and the sky. It revealed five main variants of the domestic cognitive model. Their presence in the linguistic worldview can be explained by several factors: 1. The importance of the topic for all native speakers. 2. Transfer, of signs of the habitable space of the earth to the sky and celestial objects. 3. Comparison of the developed and undeveloped space of the earth and the sky. 4. Biblical allusion to the Genesis, including the creation of the sky and the moon. Variants of the domestic cognitive model of the sky and the moon concepts were as follows: 1. sky – building / structure, e.g., a high rise with a dormer window; moon – lamp, e.g., candelabrum, lamp, light bulb, halogen lamp, horn, lantern, etc. 2. Sky – house / building, e.g., a house with a roof, windows, doors, threshold, floor, walls; moon – lamp, e.g., kerosene lamp, candle, etc. 3. Sky – tent, e.g., royal mansions, temple, church, military fortification. The moon has no place in this model. 4. Sky – yurt, e.g., a structure with walls made of felt in the form of a dome with a threshold separating the inhabited world from the alien. The moon is not represented in this model. 5. The sky – dwelling of God, e.g., a temple with a dome and a vaulted ceiling, an iconostasis; moon – lamp, e.g., a celestial lamp as sacred as the sun).

INTEGRATED MULTI-ANALYTICAL STUDY OF THE BRONZE VESSEL FROM MĂLĂIEȘTI ROMAN FORT

This paper presents an integrated multi-analytical documentation of a bronze vessel discovered in a 2nd century Roman military fort from ancient Dacia. The process involved 3D digitization, X-ray and hyperspectral imaging, and molecular, elemental, and structural analysis using Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence, laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction. The results of the study revealed the composition of the vessel metal and of the interior coating and the state of conservation through metal quality, internal cracks and corrosion compounds mapping. A 3D virtual reconstruction of the original aspect is also proposed based on the digitization and metal characterization results.

Understanding Ganghwa Dondae Forts as a Vernacular Model of Construction and Reuse

The Dondae forts of Ganghwa Island in the late Joseon dynasty are significant as a maritime defense heritage. Thus far, research on Dondae has focused on historical sources. This study concentrates on essential interpretation to comprehend the vernacular architectural characteristics of the forts as a fixed facility. Confirming the purpose of the construction provides a deeper understanding of the appearance of the late Joseon dynasty beyond the current modified Ganghwa Dondae. This study utilizes standard models of fort architecture established during King Sukjong’s regime and confirms the unique value of military forts, which evolved through a myriad of political changes. Furthermore, this study addresses the sustainable conservation of fort architecture through the continual reuse of the yeongjochek (a construction measurement unit), even though combat techniques had been ceaselessly advanced for the more efficient discharge of cannons. The construction activities of Dondae forts in the 18th century unveil a management system in pre-modern times that is comparable to the modern model in terms of repetitive repairs and incessant production, designed to support military purposes based on norms established during the planning stage. Sustainable architectural models have been standardized since pre-modern times and allow the continued production and conservation of monuments for future generations.

Units of Military Fortification Complex as Phenomenon Elements of the Czech Borderlands Landscape

This paper is focused on selected units of casemates with enhanced fortification in the military fortification complex of the Czech borderlands landscape as specific forms of brownfields. They represent a functional system that interacts with surrounding nature, landscape character, and human society. Four approaches were chosen to study the function and potential of selected individual abandoned casemates with enhanced fortification, where each of them corresponds to one of the four landscape layers: genius loci, socio-economic sphere, functional relationship (between human and the landscape), and natural conditions. There is a corresponding research method for each of the landscape layers (guided interview with respondents, data analysis on abandoned casemates with enhanced fortifications as brownfields, analysis of their landscape functions, and zoological survey of interior). The main results could show that abandoned casemates with enhanced fortifications can play important roles in all landscape layers: stories and genius loci, abandoned casemates with enhanced fortification as a special type of military brownfield but also as a semi-natural ecosystem, and the same time as a habitat for invertebrates. The analyses and surveys conducted clearly demonstrate that abandoned casemates with enhanced fortification as units of military fortification complex of the Czech borderlands landscape perform several hidden important functions in the landscape for which they cannot be viewed as brownfields. This hidden functional potential is most likely best described by the concept of hidden singularity, which offers itself for integration into basic approaches to brownfields.

Noi observații în legătură cu topografia sitului arheologic de la Tibiscum-Jupa (jud. Caraș-Severin) / New data about the topography of the archaeological site Tibiscum-Jupa (Caraș-Severin County)

Tibiscum is one of the biggest Roman auxiliary forts in Dacia and one of the most interesting sites of this kind. It comprises a military fort with its civil settlement and the remains of other structures related to them. The environment around Tibiscum makes it interesting also from the geological point of view. The Timiş River flowing along the fort changed its riverbed regularly in the past, causing troubles to the inhabitants and now to the archaeologists. The broader area around Tibiscum has been only partly researched and still awaits further investigations. The goal of our two-year research was a better understanding of the ancient landscape around Tibiscum and a spatial allocation of settlements and infrastructure. A set of various methods has been implemented to cover the largest area available for the surveys without using excavation methods. Non-destructive survey allowed to collect data which led to the new conclusions about the settlement complex.Following the analysed surveys, new roads were discovered, the necropolis area of the municipium Septimium Tibiscensium, new areas inhabited around the fortification, and especially the parts of the archaeological site that were destroyed by the floods and fluctuations of the river Timiș could be established.

THE TOWN AND THE SEA. PETROVSK AT THE CASPIAN SEA

The article attempts to demonstrate the transformation of the Russian military fortification Petrovskoe at the coast of the Caspian Sea into the large industrial center of the Dagestan region in the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries, as well as to examine the role of the seaport in its economic development. Since 40s of the 19th century, the fort Petrovskoe was a transit point for cargo, transported by sea from Astrakhan for the Russian army, which was involved in war in Dagestan. The author considers the development of sea trade between Astrakhan, Baku and Petrovsk after the latter received the status of a city. The role of Petrovsk in the international trade in the Caspian Sea is shown. As new sources, we introduced data from the Statistical Committee of the Dagestan Region from the Central State Archives of the Republic of Dagestan, as well as materials from the collections of the State Historical Archives of the Republic of Azerbaijan. When writing the article, the author involved works of domestic and global historiography. The methodological basis of the article is the principle of historicism, which presupposes the study of any phenomenon in specific historical conditions and connections, as well as taking into account the decisive role of economic foundations for the development of society. The article reveals the development of Petrovsk and its seaport in the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries, when Dagestan was integrated into the economic life of the Empire. Archival materials, published sources and historical literature were used when writing the paper. The author highlights that in the following third of the 19th century, sailing ships were replaced by steamships in the Caspian Sea. The place, occupied by the Petrovsky port among the ports of Russia in the Caspian is demonstrated. The article considers the goods brought to Petrovsk by sea and exported from it. The foundation of the textile factory “Caspian Manufactory” in Petrovsk in 1899 became possible thanks to the port. The construction of the Vladikavkaz railway intensified its role in the 90s of the 19th century. The author comes to the conclusion that the city of Petrovsk and its port played an important role in the process of integration of Dagestan into the economic space of the Russian Empire, and in the emergence of capitalist relations in the region.

El asedio a la libertad: Abolición y posabolición de la esclavitud en el Cono Sur

El asedio a la libertad: Abolición y posabolición de la esclavitud en el Cono Sur

Grociana piccola: a rare example of Republican military fortifications in Italy

AbstractRecent investigations at Grociana piccola, a site in northeastern Italy consisting of two sub-rectangular fortifications, offer the rare opportunity to investigate Early Roman military architecture outside the Iberian peninsula. Excavations have revealed an inner rubble masonry rampart dated to the 2nd c. BCE by associated pottery, mainly amphora remains. This date suggests that the fortification was in use during the first Roman conquest and/or later campaigns of the 2nd c. BCE, providing one of the earliest and smallest examples of a military fort. The fort's ramparts were built using the same building technique as much larger 2nd-c. BCE military camps. Another trench uncovered the northeastern corner of the outer rampart and a probable tower or artillery platform which can be connected to a temporary camp built during the mid-1st c. BCE.

The English East India Company and Cochinchina (1614–1705): from free trade to coercion

ABSTRACT By investigating English primary materials kept in the India Office Records, this study reviews relations between the English East India Company and Cochinchina (1614–1705) to argue that the Company changed its connecting strategy towards Cochinchina from commercial and diplomatic approaches to more aggressive methods. Cochinchina witnessed these strategic changes by the Company during its first century: the English embarked on commercial voyages to the kingdom in the 1610s, exploited a diplomatic approach in the mission 1695–1696 and forcefully built a military fortification in the period 1702–1705. Rather than re-narrating the English presence in Cochinchina, this article considers it as a case study to research the Company’s transformation process, as they not only sought to trade with this market but also recognized and exploited its geopolitical potential. Moreover, the study analyses the Cochinchinese Court’s skilful diplomatic responses to the English, in order to provide a comprehensive view of these relations, and fully explore the reasons for the failures of the English in settling a fortification in Cochinchina, and in their efforts at trade and diplomacy in the 1610s.

Identifikace potenciální strukturální koherence na základě keramického materiálu z provinciálního pohřebiště II v antické Gerulatě (SR) za pomoci kvantitativních analýz

The ceramic vessels from necropolis No. II were redocumented during the ongoing revision of archaeological material from cemeteries belonging to the Roman military fort with civil hinterland – Gerulata. This necropolis contains the highest informative value for both archaeological and anthropological material. Therefore, for the needs of this study, a set of pottery was chosen from that particular site, which consisted of approximately 120 complete various-shaped artefacts to be used for volume calculation. The vessels primarily served for offerings but were also partly used as urns. Drawing and photo documentation was used to create 3D models of the individual artefacts. These visualisations were a data source for the quantitative measurement of the volume variations. Models and volume calculations were created in Blender open-source software before identifying a correlation between vessel shape and volume and the graves in which they were found. The main subject of this research was to identify potential structural coherence within the funerary habits using the univariate statistical analysis produced in PAST 3 open-source software.

Rach Cat Fort - The Largest French-Built Strategic Fort In Vietnam In Early 20th Century

In 1900, at the risk of the spread of World War I, the French strengthened the defensive lines on the southwestern coast of France as well as the forts along the Germany-France border. In Vietnam, after occupying all six provinces in the South, in order to protect Sai Gon - the capital of the six provinces from other Western powerhouses, the French built a coastal defensive line stretching from present-day Vung Tau to Can Gio (Sai Gon) and to Can Duoc (Long An) to counter the attacks from the coast to the mainland. Long Huu Island, located between the three rivers of Can Giuoc (Rach Cat), Vam Co and Soai Rap (Nha Be) was chosen as the place to build one of the largest military forts in Indochina at that time - Rach Cat Fort (the French also called it “River Defense System” and “Cap Saint-Jacques"). This is one of the earliest military buildings and the most fortified forts across Indochina, which played a crucial role to the French in Southern Vietnam. In the course of its existence, Rach Cat Fort witnessed many military operations. Currently, despite deteriorated parts, the structure of Rach Cat Fort is still intact. With its unique historical value as well as aesthetic value as an old European-style fort, Rach Cat Fort has been ranked as a National Historic Site and is being developed by local authorities into a tourist attraction that attaches historical relics to eco-tourism.

Pekka Hämäläinen, Lakota America: A New History of Indigenous Power

American Religion 2, no. 2 (Spring 2021), pp. 154–156 Copyright © 2021, The Trustees of Indiana University • doi: 10.2979/amerreli.2.2.14 Book Review Pekka Hämäläinen, Lakota America: A New History of Indigenous Power (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2019) Jennifer Graber University of Texas, Austin, USA Lakota America is a sweeping history from the sixteenth through the twenty-first centuries. As with his earlier book on the Comanches, Hämäläinen shows how a powerful Native nation impacted the development of the American West. In this case, Lakotas quelled French and British colonial aspirations. Later, they created their own powerful empire whose growth paralleled and often thwarted US expansion. Hämäläinen’s explanation of Lakotas’ rise to power is novel. Rather than presume their “apparent invincibility” as horse-mounted, gun-toting warriors, he details the Native nation’s many migrations and permutations. He argues that Lakotas’ “stunning ability and willingness to change” facilitated survival and, for a time, dominance (9). As such, Lakota “shapeshifting” is central to American history. Hämäläinen situates the Lakota within the Očhéthi Šakówin or Seven Council Fires, popularly known as the Sioux. He details four shapeshifting episodes , each involving new places, lifeways, technologies, and relationships with Native neighbors and colonial powers. He considers these shifts in light of the trickster figure, Iktómi, who models a “capacity to adapt” in Lakota oral tradition (9). The book begins with Lakotas’ earliest experiences in what is now Minnesota where they were hardly powerful. Their prospects rose and fell depending on Jennifer Graber 155 access to colonial goods and their Native neighbors’ strength. As French-Native conflicts in the east wreaked havoc beyond the Great Lakes, Lakotas turned west. This move did not immediately take them to the high prairie, but rather to the Missouri River’s bottomlands. There, Lakotas maximized their large population and access to guns to secure resource-rich riverbed territory. Along the way, they dominated most Native peoples living along the Missouri. Their power grew, but they were hardly the juggernaut they would eventually become. They needed more resources to exert control over their riverbed neighbors. Again, Lakotas looked west. As Hämäläinen observes, they did so at the exact moment guns streamed in from the east and plentiful horses moved up from the south. At this highly fortunate convergence of resources, Lakotas moved onto the plains and made buffalo hunting central to their way of life. Soon, they had sufficient horses to mount every member of their populous nation. Lakotas were swift and mobile, ranging over unprecedented amounts of land. With massive horse herds to be fed, Lakotas shifted one last time. They settled in Pahá Sápa, or the Black Hills, for its rich and sheltered grasslands. Lakotas came to see these hills as the center of the world. The book’s second half tells the more familiar story of US efforts to move through Lakota lands, targeting them for overland trails, military forts, railroad lines, and gold mining. Lakota shapeshifting, including their ability to maximize resources available from Americans while moving nimbly enough to evade their control, kept them independent for longer than almost any other Native nation. Even as well-known American military characters such as Fetterman and Custer come into the story, Hämäläinen attends to internal Lakota dynamics and relations with Native neighbors. He maintains this focus through extensive use of winter counts, Lakotas’ visual form of history keeping. The book’s climax comes with the 1876 Battle of the Little Bighorn in which Lakotas defeated Custer. With this interpretative choice, Hämäläinen emphasizes a Native nation’s stunning victory over US Americans, who seemed shocked that their centennial-celebrating nation had been stopped in its tracks by Indians. Lakota America offers much to American religionists who find themselves weaving “highlights” of American Indian history into their survey courses. Hämäläinen’s focus on contingency and transformation presents an alternative to two unhelpful trends in many textbooks: one that presents Native practices as frozen in time and another that characterizes change as inauthentic. Häm...

MORPHOGENESIS URBORENDZYN OF THE OLD CASTLE KAMYANETS-PODILSKY STATE HISTORICAL MUSEUM OF THE RESERVE

The appearance of the soil, i.e. its morphology, is a reflection of its internal features, such as mineral composition and physico-chemical characteristics. External qualities of genetic horizons reproduce the material composition of the soil, and in their professional analysis can give an idea of the nature of the regimes that determine the modern processes of soil genesis. Morphogenetic characteristic properties of soil are formed in the process of soil formation. There is a number of works and publications regarding the morphogenesis of soils of beligerative complexes, but due to certain difficulties in their research, the available factual information is insignificant, insufficiently systematized and generalized. Researchers have difficulty classifying and diagnosing research objects when studying such soils. Discussions on these issues continue to this day. The old castle of the Kamyanets-Podilsky State Historical Museum-Reserve is a long-lasting self-regulated military fortification beligerative landscape complex of the slope type. Located in the canyon part of the valley of the river Smotrych. The total area of the Old Castle is about 4.5 hectares. The initial soil surveys within the Old Castle were conducted in 1932 by Professor VV Akimtsev, as a result of which the morphogenetic properties of the soil formed on the open terrace of the “Denna Tower” were described in detail. The article analyzes the available scientific works and publications on the morphogenesis of modern and buried soils of beligerative complexes. A comparative analysis of different morphogenetic features of urborendzin formed on the “Denna Tower” of the Old Castle in Kamianets-Podilskyi region is carried out. Detailed descriptions of morphogenetic characteristic properties of the studied soil are given. Much attention is paid to differences in morphological descriptions. The dynamics of changes in morphogenetic parameters is established. The comparison of indexing systems of genetic horizons of the studied soil used by different researchers is given. The classification of the FAO system (WRB, 2006) in combination with the substrate-functional classification of anthropogenic soils O. B. Vovk and the profile-genetic classification of M. M. Stroganova were used. The following scientific methods were used in the process of research of morphological features of beligerative structures soils of the Kamianets-Podilskyi Old Castle: morphological, cartographic, source, problem-chronological, comparative-geographical, and archeological. Key words: beligerative complex; morphogenesis; soil, urborendzin; the “Denna Tower”.

MODERN BELIGERATIVE RELIEF (ON THE EXAMPLE OF YAVORIV MILITARY TRAINING GROUND OF LVIV REGION)

The author establishes the types of relief created for military purposes (beligerative) and analyzes its morphology. The territory of the Yavoriv military training ground in the Lviv region, the largest in Ukraine training complex of various types and kinds of troops, was chosen as an example. The military training ground was established in the 30s of the twentieth century. In the past, Polish infantry, German tank divisions, Soviet troops, and nowadays Ukrainian and international ground and air forces trained here. The area of the landfill is 361.5 km2. It occupies an advantageous position in the terrain, as it is located on an elevated part of the Roztochchya Upland, where the Main European watershed passes. Loose sediments are widespread in the territory, which contribute to the creation of deep and elongated forms of beligerative relief. These are mainly quaternary alluvial sands and detritus of native rocks, aeolian and diluvial loess and sandy loams, alluvial sediments. We consider the beligerative relief as an integral part of the field military fortification. The research was performed on the base of interpretation of large-scale space images, aerial photographs and field studies. The modern beligerative relief observed at the Yavoriv military training ground was classified into positive and negative forms depending on the method of military activity. Positive forms include: 1) hills of command posts for control and surveillance, 2) hills of tank or cannon fortifications, 3) micro-hills of protection against small arms, 4) bunkers (wooden-earth defense points), 5) high-altitude targets and firing positions. Negative forms are as follows: 1) trenches of the defense line and the course of connections; 2) open structures for the protection of personnel: individual trenches, pairs, for several infantry, as well as for shooting lying down, kneeling, standing; 3) trenches for the protection of equipment and heavy artillery weapons; 4) closed structures for personnel protection: dugouts, bunkers, cracks, dugouts; 5) excavations from ruptures of artillery shells. There are more negative forms in the modern military relief. Analysis of space images from different times (1980–1990, 2000–2005, 2015–2019) and modern field observations allowed us to trace the dynamics of beligerative relief forms. The formation of new and most widespread forms occurs in the mid-80 of the twentieth century. At the end of the XX and at the beginning of the XXI century, the existing forms decline, steamrolled by exogenous processes, and new ones do not appear. New forms have been appeared since 2015, but only in small local areas. The place they appear are characterized by a significant anthropogenic transformation of the terrain, the development of exogenous processes, such as soil dispersal, desertification, erosion, oozing. Key words: beligerative (military) relief; Yavoriv military training ground (Ukraine); morphological classification.

Analysis of the historical and architectural environment of Maykop in the context of architectural heritage

The historical aspects of the Maykop city formation are highlighted from the architectural and town-planning heritage point of view. The evolution of the spatial environment of Maykop in the historical part of the city is considered. A retrospective analysis of the settlement architectural and planning organization during the formation of the military fortification, taking into account the strategic and natural-climatic factors, is carried out. Some monuments of the architectural heritage of the late 19th - early 20th centuries are presented. The features of the organization of the historical and architectural environment in the process of its formation are revealed. The most significant problems of preserving the considered heritage in the historical environment of the settlement are generalized.

NDT Methods Suitable for Evaluation the Condition of Military Fortification Construction in the Field

The protective structure is designed to protect the live force against the impact of a shock wave and projectiles, it cannot be diagnosed by the destructive method which devalues the protective structure by sampling. The authors are looking for a combination of suitable non-destructive technology (NDT) methods that would be used in the future to prove the degree of damage to cement-based protective structures after an explosion. This article represents the first part of an experiment designed to verify the applicability of NDT methods, to evaluate the degree of damage of the protective structure in the field. The experiment consists of three parts. The first part is a laboratory verification of the initial material characteristics of the materials used. The first test set of structural elements is made of steel fiber-reinforced concrete. The elements are evaluated using NDT methods and for comparison by destructive laboratory methods. The second part is the impact of structures using explosion and evaluation of the condition of structures using NDT methods in the field. The last part is used to verify the results of the NDT method, which ensures the residual strength of the structure in the laboratory and try to find the relationship between changes in the results of NDT methods and the residual strength. Radiography was included in the introductory and concluding parts of the experiment to verify the results. Although this method is not suitable for using in-situ, it is the only standardized method of the NDT methods used.

Control of Ailanthus altissima using cut stump and basal bark herbicide applications in an eighteenth‐century fortress

AbstractThe Cittadella di Alessandria (Italy) is a military fortification that was built in the 18th century. The site has recently been abandoned and is now colonised by weeds, including the invasive Ailanthus altissima. The aim of the study was to compare the efficacy of different herbicides (glyphosate, a mixture of aminopyralid + fluroxypyr and triclopyr + fluroxypyr) applied to cut stumps or to the basal bark of A. altissima. For the cut stump application, plants were first cut at the base and then immediately sprayed and for the basal bark application, the lower 50 cm of the plants was sprayed with the herbicides; untreated cut plants were used as a control, for comparison. Two runs per study were carried out (in summer 2015 and in spring 2016). Efficacy was assessed up to 2018 by counting the resprouts and their height in the cut stump application and, for the basal bark treatment, by measuring the variation in the plant circumference after treatment. The cut stump treatment carried out in summer greatly reduced the number of resprouts, compared to the spring treatment, to less than one sprout per plant when aminopyralid + fluroxypyr was used, and its efficacy lasted for about two years. The basal bark treatment did not control the species, but lower levels of variation in circumference and greater mortality were detected in plants treated with aminopyralid + fluroxypyr. Considering the high level of infestation of the site and the high risk of plant resprouting, repeated cut stump treatments with aminopyralid + fluroxypyr would be preferable to eradicate this invasive species.

On Diagnostics of Military Fortification Constructions

The article deals with military fortification constructions, their evaluation and field experimentation. Furthermore, it discusses legal standards, international and national regulations that set parameters and effects on military fortification structures. The diagnosis of structures can be characterized as a statement of differences between the assumed (projected) state and the current state of the examined structure. While field experimentation is an effect on structures and monitoring behavior and changes in the state of the structure. Considering the specific accidental actions, it is necessary to use diagnostic procedures other than conventional constructions, especially regarding the impossibility of breaking the structure by removing the specimen. It is necessary to evaluate the structure for a different type of action than usual. Some field tests were conducted at the Department of Engineer Technology according to STANG 2280. Some, however, were carried out according to their own procedure. These activities are referred to in the paper as field experiments and were used mainly to verify mathematical simulations of the behavior of actioned structures, and to make the experiments of field experiments more precise.

L2 Greek in Roman Egypt: Intense language contact in Roman military forts

Abstract This paper will focus on analysing user-related variation in Greek in Egypt as seen through potsherd letters (ostraka) of the residents of Roman forts, praesidia, in the Eastern Desert of Egypt. The letters can be dated to the first and second centuries CE. I suggest that the linguistic situation in the forts can be seen as evidence of extensive language contact that was connected with the considerable economic activity of the Roman Empire. All military forts had several L2 Greek speakers of various ethnicity. In what follows I will suggest that Roman soldiers and their civil partners had created a system that can be described as a feature pool of Greek variables. I suggest that the data from Egypt show that L2 speakers of Greek had an effect on Greek at all grammatical levels, strengthening existing and ongoing endogenous changes by creating substantial contact-induced variation in phonology as well as in morphosyntax and even phraseology. The intense language contact suggests, in my opinion, that language dynamics of this period follow the resilience theory, where various different phases of the adaptive cycle can be simultaneous, as almost all possible varieties of Greek, from historical High Attic to Multiethnic Greek are in use.

Mineralogical Characterization of Historical Cement-based Mortars from the Rupnik Military Fortification Line

ABSTRACT This paper presents the results of cement-based mortars characterizations that were taken from rendered layers of military bunkers in the Rupnik Line. The Rupnik Line was conceived as a part of the fortified defence system protecting the Rapallo Border between the Kingdom of Italy and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, established in 1920. The bunkers were built between 1938 and 1941, and the renders of various compositions were applied as a camouflage layer that merged the bunkers with the environment. Results of petrographic examination and microstructural and chemical analysis of the samples confirmed that locally available crushed dolomite or limestone sands were used as an aggregate in the mortars. As binders, pure Portland cement or a mixture of cement and ground granulated blast furnace slag were used. The selection of the aggregate and binder type in a particular mortar was based on the colour of the artificial stone produced. All samples with the dolomite aggregate show the presence of alkali-aggregate reactions, dedolomitization of the grains and secondary calcite formation in the cement binder, along with the Mg-Al, Mg-Si and Mg-Al-Si phase formations. In mortar compositions with a high Portland cement content, the presence of delayed ettringite formation was also confirmed.