Military Acquisition Research Articles

SINGAPORE: BALANCING BETWEEN WEST AND EAST

Due to its location at the intersection between the spheres of influence of multiple regional players, as well as its socio-cultural composition, Singapore had to conduct a diplomatic policy of balancing in order to secure its existence and develop its armed forces. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the defence policy of the state of Singapore, the characteristics of its military cooperation with its main partners and whether the diplomatic policy of balancing diplomatic relationships with powerful countries, motivated by diverging goals, impacts the military development of Singapore. The research method used is the observation of the military diplomatic relations of Singapore’s armed forces, as well as the of its military acquisition policies.

Transformative leadership: President Ricardo Lagos and democratic civilian control of armed forces in Chile (2000–2006)

AbstractIn Chile, military subordination to civilians has been a difficult, gradual, and unaccomplished process. Using a qualitative approach, this case study analyzes how a head of state—President Ricardo Lagos (2000–2006)—introduced without constitutional prerogatives important changes in military subordination to civilian authorities. Based on political leadership studies and civil–military relations theory, we analyze the constitutional reforms that ended military presence in the Senate, and two policy changes—military acquisitions and human rights. We argue that President Lagos' transformation type of effective leadership made these changes possible.

No-capability defence acquisition: a literature review on policy and practice of military acquisition within NATO and the EU

No-capability defence acquisition: a literature review on policy and practice of military acquisition within NATO and the EU

Developing an Evidence-Based Military Auditory Fitness-for-Duty Standard Based on the 80-Word Modified Rhyme Test.

One important function of military audiology is to conduct evaluations of service members (SMs) with hearing loss to ensure they are fit for deployment in dangerous operational environments. The objective of this study was to establish evidence-based auditory fitness-for-duty criteria based on speech-in-noise performance on the 80- and 160-word clinical versions of the Modified Rhyme Test (MRT 80 and MRT 160 ). Approximately 2400 SMs with various levels of hearing loss were recruited to complete the MRT 80 in conjunction with their annual hearing conservation evaluations. These SMs were also asked to perform one or more operationally-relevant listening tasks based on audio recordings made in highly realistic military training environments. The scores on these tests were compared to determine how well a proposed cutoff criterion for the MRT 80 was able to identify individuals who are hard of hearing with an exceptionally high risk of abnormally poor performance on operationally-relevant hearing tasks. The results show that a cutoff criterion that combines the percent correct score on two lists of the MRT 80 (i.e. MRT 160 ) with information about the better-ear threshold at 2 kHz is generally able to separate listeners with hearing loss into those who are likely to perform relatively well on operational listening tests and those who are likely to perform poorly on these tasks. This is consistent with current military acquisition standards, which identify the MRT as the preferred test for evaluating speech intelligibility for radios, headsets, and other communication equipment. It is also consistent with prior studies conducted in high-fidelity military simulations which have shown a significant correlation between MRT performance and operational outcomes. The proposed selection criteria, along with the new hearing profile standards that were recently adopted by the US Army, appear to provide an effective evidence-based methodology for identifying those SMs with hearing loss who are most at risk for poor performance on hearing-critical military tasks.

Applying User-Centered Design to U.S. Military Acquisition Requests

This study presents the concept testing results of a low-fidelity user-centered design (UCD) tool applied to the U.S. military acquisition request process. A purposive, random, small-sampled population of United States Marines used a UCD-based Design Worksheet to aid their own design process as they prepared a simulated acquisition request for equipment modifications. The results indicated that Marines engaged in the robust discovery and design exploration while using the Design Worksheet. While Marines had some challenges with understanding how to navigate the Design Worksheet, they found it valuable as a prompt for a useful, more productive thinking process. Importantly, Marines indicated that they would adopt the Design Worksheet to complete a real acquisition design request. Considerations for how the Design Worksheet supported their equipment modification analysis, and whether similar HCI or UCD tools could be pursued and adopted in comparable design environments are discussed.

Technology and Policy: System Acquisition in a Complex Operational Environment

The United States’ (US) ability to maintain a technological edge in the current operational environment is challenged by the increased ability of near-peer nations to produce military technology. In response to this problem, the US Army Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC) seeks to model the three key elements of military system acquisition—context, product, and process—to develop a more comprehensive understanding regarding how and why nations acquire technical solutions. Through the application of the System Dynamics Modeling Process (SDMP), this research examines the interactions between the strategic context of Germany, the military products it acquires to address its operational needs, and the processes it employs to acquire military technology. The results of this research indicate that numerous dynamic variables of context impact the acquisitions process for Germany, particularly political support and subsequent monetary allocations to research and development.

Foreword by Guest Editors COL Paul F. Evangelista & LTC James H. Schreiner

This special issue of the Industrial and Systems Engineering Review once again showcases the top papers from the annual General Donald R. Keith memorial capstone conference at the United States Military Academy in West Point, NY. Despite continued COVID restrictions, the truly innovative conference included a mix of in-person presentations with over 50 live and remote judges from across academia and industry to create a high-quality event highlighting the undergraduate student team research. After consideration of over 50 academic papers, the eight listed in this issue were selected for publication in this special issue of the journal. The topics discussed are broad and diverse, however decision support within an uncertain and complex environment emerges as a theme. Much of the work completed by industrial and systems engineers focuses on getting decisions right by means of the tools of our trade. The suite of tools surveyed within these papers represents several state-of-the-art methods as well as time-proven techniques within a unique application domain.
 
 Military applications dominated several of the papers. Downey et al. studied massive datasets that represent military operational behaviors in training, seeking to better understand military operational capabilities. Ungrady and Dabkowski tackled the complexities of US Army recruiting through the application of fuzzy cognitive maps, searching for causation. Middlebrooks et al. studied military acquisition system decisions, applying system dynamics modeling. 
 
 Process improvement represented another sub-theme, with continued focus on decision support. Enos et al. applied lean six sigma techniques to manufacturing processes. Katz et al. explored biomedical machine maintenance scheduling, seeking optimal solutions to a complex scheduling task. Kaloudelis et al. developed a pandemic decision support process for universities.
 
 Analytics and machine learning techniques applied to the information domain dominated the third sub-theme. Krueger and Enos developed analytics to support ice hockey strategies. Manzonelli et al. applied natural language processing against information operations, seeking to automate the examination of incredible amounts of narrative data that seek to shape beliefs and attitudes. 
 
 Please join me in congratulating our authors, especially the young undergraduate scholars that provided the primary intellectual efforts that created the contents of this issue.
 
 COL Paul F. Evangelista
 Chief Data Officer
 United States Military Academy
 Taylor Hall, 5th Floor
 West Point, NY 10996
 Email: paul.evangelista@westpoint.edu
 
 James H. Schreiner, PhD, PMP, CPEM, F.ASEM
 LTC(P), U.S. Army
 Associate Professor
 USMA Academy Professor 
 Director, Engineering Management (EM) Program
 Department of Systems Engineering
 
 Head Officer Representative, Army Softball
 
 United States Military Academy
 Room 420 Mahan Hall
 West Point, NY 10996
 Email: james.schreiner@westpoint.edu
 
 

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Russia's aggressive war against Ukraine has significantly changed the conditions of the educational process at the National Academy of the National Guard of Ukraine, the worldview of cadets as active participants in the educational process. There was a reassessment of the importance of certain general and special competencies that are formed in them, their impact on learning outcomes. To take into account the above in the educational process of NANGU in the new conditions was conducted a study involving cadets in major 254 "Military acquisition and procurement", educational program "Linguistic support and communication" of bachelor educational level, the results of which are presented in this work. The analysis of the scientific literature conducted in the process of preparation of the work showed that most of these works relate to the training of future officers in peacetime and do not reflect the specifics of training in martial law. However, it is obvious that the consideration of the procedure for the formation of individual competencies of cadets during martial law has some transformations associated with existing realities on the one hand and changes in the minds of cadets on the other, which required a study work. As part of the purpose of this study, 73 cadets were interviewed (88 % of the total number of cadets in this specialty). Standard google tools were used for the survey. The obtained results showed the presence of significant changes in the worldview of cadets regarding their attitude to mastering the chosen specialty. Their views on the future of the world and Ukraine, family relationships, and a reassessment of values have also changed. Particular attention is drawn to the second part of the survey, devoted to the study of the transformation of cadets' views on the formation of general and special competencies in their chosen educational and professional program. The research clarified the position of cadets in all competencies reflected in the educational program. Due to its limited scope, the most important transformations that need to be urgently taken into account when organizing the educational process at the National Academy of the National Guard of Ukraine under martial law are reflected directly in the work. The full materials of the research will be covered in further scientific works of the author.

Developing a Model Based Systems Engineering Architecture for Defense Wearable Technology

AbstractThe rapid advancement of commercial wearable sensing technologies provides an unprecedented opportunity to gather information that improves warfighter performance during military activities and to detect the onset of illness (such as COVID‐19) through surveillance. However, the promise of improved performance and illness prevention through these technologies remains unfulfilled because of the complexity of guaranteeing that technology development outside of the standard military acquisition cycle will meet military requirements. The key to meeting this challenge is to facilitate coordination among R&D efforts, commercially developed products, and military acquisition strategies. To address this, we developed an MBSE architecture and methodology for validating independently developed wearable system designs against military end‐user needs. This methodology includes developing a conceptual framework, a model library, and a capability needs matrix that maps defense mission characteristics to physiological states and product design implementations. This architecture allows military stakeholders to determine where capability gaps or opportunities for wider application of commercial technologies exist, thus providing a bridge between externally developed wearable sensing technologies and military acquisition strategies.

Gerät 920: Licensed Production of AK-74 Rifles in East Germany

The available published research regarding the implementation of the AK-74 rifle production programme in East Germany is very limited. The majority of what is available on the topic has only been published in German. In this short research article, the author seeks to gather together the available facts to highlight the political, industrial, and technological aspects surrounding the adoption of the AK-74 by Eastern Germany. The author also aims to highlight the challenges that resulted from this massive military acquisition programme, which placed a significant burden on the already crumbling economy of East Germany during the final years of that nation’s existence.

No-capability defence acquisition: A literature review on policy and practice of military acquisition within NATO and the EU

No-capability defence acquisition: A literature review on policy and practice of military acquisition within NATO and the EU

Research and Development, Testing, and the Economics of Information, 1937–63

American mathematicians’ contributions to the engineering and production of equipment in World War II included the exploration of ways to improve choices between competing designs and maximize the value of experimental testing of prototypes. After the war, these contributions were extended, particularly at the RAND Corporation. Working on such matters, Kenneth Arrow took a keen interest in testing as a paradigm for information gathering in economic decision-making and in encouraging investment in R&D as an information-gathering exercise essential to making informed choices in military systems acquisition. He later extended insights about the shortcomings of information gathering as a market activity to his touchstone analysis of disparities of information between physician and patient as a crucial aspect of the economics of medical care. While it is difficult to trace the precise influence of the work of Arrow and others around him on engineering and R&D management, the issues they grappled with have remained relevant for more than half a century.

MEF Innovation Team (MIT): Discovering and Solving the MEFs Complex Problems

Adversaries use cost-effective and timely technologies to counter expensive military acquisitions that undermine the United States’ military capabilities. With the private sector outpacing defense innovation, the speed of technology and business drives future warfare considerations. If technology corporations drive the speed of the future of warfare, then appreciating design thinking’s business model applicability to military strategy shapes how the Marine Corps responds to uncertain operating environments during the next several decades. This article incorporates aspects of design thinking for the Marine Corps to provide variables aiding in future warfare innovation to solve complex problems inherent to the future operating environment.

AESA radar and IRST against low observable threats

PurposeModern fighter aircraft using active electronically scanned array (AESA) fire control radars are able to detect and track targets at long ranges, in the order of 50 nautical miles or more. Low observable or stealth technology has contested the radar capabilities, reducing detection/tracking ranges roughly to one-third (or even less, for fighter aircraft radar). Hence, infrared search and track (IRST) systems have been reconsidered as an alternative to the radar. This study aims to explore and compare the capabilities and limitations of these two technologies, AESA radars and IRST systems, as well as their synergy through sensor fusion.Design/methodology/approachThe AESA radar range is calculated with the help of the radar equation under certain assumptions, taking into account heat dissipation requirements, using the F-16 fighter as a case study. Concerning the IRST sensor, a new model is proposed for the estimation of the detection range, based on the emitted infrared radiation caused by aerodynamic heating.FindingsThe maximum detection range provided by an AESA radar could be restricted because of the increased waste heat which is produced and the relevant constraints concerning the cooling capacity of the carrying aircraft. On the other hand, IRST systems exhibit certain advantages over radars against low observable threats. IRST could be combined with a datalink with the help of data fusion, offering weapons-quality track.Originality/valueAn original approach is provided for the IRST detection range estimation. The AESA/IRST comparison offers valuable insight, while it allows for more efficient planning, at the military acquisition phase, as well as at the tactical level.

Cost-Benefit Analysis of Bid Protests: A Representative Bidder Model

ABSTRACT The goal of any procurement process is to obtain ‘value for money.’ Bid protest systems are intended to help. The U.S. Department of Defense, NATO, the EU, UN, OECD, and WTO, all authorize losing bidders to protest public procurements. The threat of a protest is meant to increase government accountability, and encourage vendor participation. An extensive legal and regulatory literature discusses intended benefits of protests, but is surprisingly silent about the costs. The goal of this study is to examine both costs and benefits. Military acquisition offers an illustration. The dual objective is to minimize corruption, and maximize competition. Sadly, protest systems can inadvertently discourage both. Moreover, past protests by defense companies have generated significant costs, and triggered dangerous delays of critical defense equipment, materiel, services, and supplies required for national security. The static, probabilistic, micro-economic, partial equilibrium, representative bidder model presented in this paper offers a cautionary tale for defense organizations, government agencies, countries, and international institutions that authorize bid protests. The model reveals multiple potential deficiencies of protest systems, and recommends analysis of portfolios of alternatives to eliminate fraud and favoritism, and increase competition, to improve procurement outcomes.

Risk Management in Major Acquisition Programs

Abstract The paper analyses the particularities of risk management in major acquisition programs (acquisition of complex defence systems) and identifies technical risks. In the framework of risk management in major acquisition programs, the following elements were analysed: the relation between risk and the process of military acquisition; the acquisition process in the military acquisition and risk management phases; the risk and the characteristics of the acquisition process

POLÍTICA EXTERIOR Y POLÍTICA DE DEFENSA. UNA CERCANÍA ESQUIVA

La política exterior y la política de defensa constituyen los principales instrumentos a través de los cuales el Estado se posiciona en el sistema internacional. Esto requiere una vinculación y coordinación muy estrecha entre ambas. Al mismo tiempo, las dos políticas se nutren de elementos similares, como la historia, la geografía, los procesos políticos internos; además, ambas son –o deben ser– Políticas de Estado. Paralelamente, existen en la política exterior elementos de naturaleza estratégica como la compatibilización de los intereses diplomáticos y militares del Estado, el poder militar y la influencia política y el aporte de la diplomacia a la ejecución de las políticas de adquisiciones militares. Todo esto hace suponer que la vinculación y coordinación entre ambas políticas resulta natural y sencilla; y sin embargo, en la práctica ello no es así; antes bien, por su misma naturaleza, las políticas exterior y de defensa son difíciles de coordinar y alinear adecuadamente; lo mismo es válido respecto de las agencias encargadas de de nirlas y aplicarlas, las secretarias o ministerios respectivos. Existe dos niveles de coordinación entre ambas políticas: el nivel primario que requiere que se den ciertas premisas básicas y el nivel avanzado, que implica la definición de una gran estrategia nacional. Este tema es aplicable, en la especie, a Chile, dado que tradicionalmente, sus políticas exterior y de defensa han seguido cursos separados y a veces conflictivos. Esta situación que era explicable y aun aceptable en el pasado, no lo es ya más y debe ser corregida en forma urgente.

Navigating the Third Offset Strategy

This article suggests adding a “craftsman” at lower ranks to steer private-sector projects through the Third Offset Strategy. This strategy was established by experienced leadership at the Pentagon to increase military acquisitions of automation and artificial intelligence technology.

Operationalizing Basic Research and Scholarship by the Office of Naval Research: A System-of-Systems Approach for the Military Acquisition and Application of Knowledge

This essay explores the process of the acquisition and application of knowledge by the Department of Defense (DoD) of the United States of America, based upon policies and practices of the Office of Naval Research (ONR). The ONR's “Systems-of-Systems” approach organizes the academic, private, and military sectors to meet critical operational needs over a twenty-year horizon. We describe the frameworks for organizing the interplay of different sectors and stakeholders in knowledge acquisition, knowledge application, and the production of operational deliverables for projected needs. It is often not appreciated that the ONR prioritizes development of innovative fundamental research, which is often interdisciplinary. Nearly sixty Nobel Laureates have contributed to these endeavors, including thirty-seven laureates since 1980. ONR-supported fundamental research has been a sustainable process for fostering scientific advances and selective production of state-of-the-art deliverables that support military operational needs, often with collateral significant benefits to the civilian sector.

Improving How We Weave Cognitive Engineering into Military Acquisition: Understand, Design, Validate

To fulfill its name and purpose, cognitive engineering must emerge from its application primarily as a research practice into implementation within recognized practices of systems engineering. Although generally accepted in military research circles, cognitive engineering theory and methods have not gained widespread application in systems engineering processes. This panel will enable five speakers with different perspectives on this problem to describe means for attempting to change this state of the practice. The focus of the panel will be in gaining traction and advocacy for applying cognitive engineering in the acquisition of major military systems, which are typically employed in high-stakes, time-critical, high-uncertainty environments.