Middle-distance Runners Research Articles

Effect of Physical Exertion on the effect of physical exertion on the concentration of copper and blood pressure in athletesn the Concentration of Copper and Blood Pressure in Athletes

Background and Study Aim. Several mineral elements are necessary for the athlete's body, which significantly impact the development of sports achievements because of their active role in bringing internal balance to the athlete's body. The study aims to determine the concentration of copper in the blood before and after the implementation of physical exertion at a level of 180 pulse/min on middle-distance runners.
 Material and Methods. Twelve athletes who are team members at Egyptian clubs were chosen deliberately as a research sample. The study participants were at the end of their special preparation. The experiment was conducted between July 12, 2021, and July 14, 2021, on the research sample, resting after exerting physical effort by running on a treadmill at a speed of 10 km / h. The runner continued at this speed for 3 minutes, after which the device's speed increased by 2 km / h every minute until reaching a heart rate of 180 pulse/ min.
 Results. The mineral differences in the copper element are attributed to the immediate induced by physical exertion by increasing the copper element in the blood within the normal level. This causes many changes and responses within the body cells. The copper element plays a significant role in oxidation and reduction processes via enzymes that require the copper element to produce energy in the cells and tissues due to the body's exposure to physical exertion. Athletes' exposure to physical exertion causes copper-dependent enzymes to produce energy in cells and tissues due to the element's requirement.
 Conclusions. Copper affected the physical effort of middle-distance runners at a heart rate of 180 pulse/min. In addition, Middle-distance runners' blood pressure (systolic and diastolic) was affected by the physical exertion at a heart rate of 180 rpm.

Urinary Incontinence Among Elite Track and Field Athletes According to Their Event Specialization: A Cross-Sectional Study

BackgroundPhysical effort in sports practice is an important trigger for urinary incontinence (UI). Among high-impact sports, all track and field events require continuous ground impacts and/or abdominal contractions that increase intra-abdominal pressure and impact on the pelvic floor musculature. However, studies to date have not taken into account the specific sports tasks that elite track and field athletes perform according to the competitive events for which they are training.MethodsThis cross-sectional study describes the prevalence, type, and severity of UI among elite track and field athletes considering their event specialization and training characteristics. A total of 211 female and 128 male elite track and field athletes answered an online questionnaire including anthropometric measures, medical history, training characteristics, and UI symptoms. To determine self-reported UI, the International Consultation on Incontinence Questionnaire-UI Short-Form (ICIQ-UI-SF) was used. To determine UI type and severity, the incontinence questionnaire and incontinence severity index were used, respectively.ResultsThe ICIQ-UI-SF showed that 51.7% of female and 18.8% of male athletes had UI, with stress UI (SUI) being the most frequent type (64.4%) for female and urge UI for male athletes (52.9%). Of athletes who were not identified as having UI according to the questionnaires, 24.6% of female and 13.6% of male athletes experienced urine leakage during training, mainly during jumping. Although training characteristics (experience, volume, and resting) were not related to UI, female athletes specializing in vertical jumps showed significantly lower UI prevalence compared to those specializing in horizontal jumps (χ2 [1] = 4.409, p = 0.040), middle-distance running (χ2 [1] = 4.523, p = 0.033), and sprint/hurdles events (χ2 [1] = 4.113, p = 0.043). These female athletes also displayed the lowest training volume. No differences were shown for males (p > 0.05).ConclusionsOver half of the elite track and field female athletes have self-reported UI, especially SUI, and prevalence is higher when considering urine leakage events during training. Training characteristics and specialization were not related to UI identified by questionnaires, but female athletes specializing in vertical jump events showed the lowest prevalence and training volume. Males showed significantly lower prevalence, without correlation with their specialization. Sport professionals should increase UI detection among elite athletes and design-specific approaches that consider their physical demands to make visible, prevent, or improve pelvic floor dysfunction in this population.

The prevalence of IGF-I axis genetic polymorphisms among decathlon athletes

ObjectiveDecathlon is a combined track and field competition, consisting of ten, mainly anaerobic events. Insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF1) axis plays a pivotal role in athletes' structural and functional muscle adaptation to exercise training, and in their competitive performance. Based on the great demand for speed physiological characteristics among decathlon athletes, the aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of IGF genetic polymorphisms among decathletes, to present an optimal genetic profile for enhancing performance. MethodsThe participants included 151 male athletes and 75 male non-athletic controls from Israel and Estonia. Athletes were divided into four groups, according to the field of expertise: (a) 40 sprinters and long jumpers; (b) 40 middle distance runners; (c) 44 Weightlifters; and (d) 27 decathletes. Genomic DNA was extracted from the participants' buccal epithelial cells using standard protocol and then analyzed for IGF1 axis related genetic polymorphism using the allelic discrimination assay. ResultsA significantly higher prevalence of the IGF1 rs35767 TT genotype was found among decathletes compared to the other athletes, as well as a lower prevalence of the IGF1 rs7136446 GG genotype, a higher prevalence of the IGF1R rs1464430 AA genotype, and a higher prevalence of the IGF2 rs680 GG genotype. Moreover, among the decathletes, carriers of the IGF1 rs7136446 GG genotype achieved higher decathlon scores compared to A-allele carriers. ConclusionsThe findings of this study suggest a potential beneficial role for some IGF-axis polymorphisms (mainly the IGF1 1245 TT and the IGF2 GG) among decathletes, both of which are associated with improved speed performance.

Antioxidant Supplementation Hinders the Role of Exercise Training as a Natural Activator of SIRT1.

Exercise training (ET) is a natural activator of silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog 1 (SIRT1), a stress-sensor able to increase the endogenous antioxidant system. SIRT1 activators include polyphenols and vitamins, the antioxidant properties of which are well-known. Antioxidant supplements are used to improve athletic performance. However, they might blunt ET-related benefits. Middle-distance runners (MDR) taking (MDR-S) or not taking antioxidant supplements (MDR-NoS) were compared with each other and with sedentary subjects (CTR) to evaluate the ET effects on SIRT1 levels and oxidative stress, and to investigate whether an exogenous source of antioxidants could interfere with such effects. Thirty-two MDR and 14 CTR were enrolled. MDR-S took 240 mg vitamin C and 15 mg vitamin E together with mineral salts. SIRT1 mRNA and activity were measured in PBMCs. Total oxidative status (TOS) and total antioxidant capacity (TEAC) were determined in plasma. MDR showed higher levels of SIRT1 mRNA (p = 0.0387) and activity (p = 0.0055) than did CTR. MDR-NoS also showed higher levels than did MDR-S without reaching statistical significance. SIRT1 activity was higher (p = 0.0012) in MDR-NoS (1909 ± 626) than in MDR-S (1276 ± 474). TOS did not differ among the groups, while MDR showed higher TEAC levels than did CTR (2866 ± 581 vs. 2082 ± 560, p = 0.0001) as did MDR-S (2784 ± 643) and MDR-NoS (2919 ± 551) (MDR-S vs. CTR, p = 0.0007 and MDR-NoS vs. CTR, p = 0.003). TEAC (β = 0.4488356, 95% CI 0.2074645 0.6902067; p < 0.0001) and the MDR-NoS group (β = 744.6433, 95% CI 169.9954 1319.291; p= 0.012) predicted SIRT1 activity levels. Antioxidant supplementation seems to hinder the role of ET as a natural activator of SIRT1.

Adding protein to a carbohydrate pre-exercise beverage does not influence running performance and metabolism.

To analyze whether pre-exercise CHO+PRO vs. CHO intake distinctly influences running performance and metabolic biomarkers along a various of exercise intensities. In a randomized, double blind, counterbalanced, crossover and placebo control design, 10 middle distance runners were tested in 3 occasions. After 10 h of fasting, participants ingested isovolumic beverages (0.75+0.25g·BW-1 of CHO+PRO, 1.0g·BW-1 of CHO and placebo control) 30 min before a treadmill running incremental protocol of 4 min steps until exhaustion. Venous blood was collected at fasting, 30 min after beverage ingestion and after the 3rd and 7th running steps. Oxygen uptake-related variables, including respiratory exchange ratio, heart rate, plasma glucose, insulin, glucagon, free fatty acids, blood lactate concentrations, gastrointestinal discomfort and rate of perceived exertion were measured. The addition of PRO to CHO had no influence on the measured variables, which did not differ between conditions along all incremental protocol intensities. The intake of CHO+PRO (compared to CHO) tended to decrease glycemia (106.5±21.3 vs. 113.6±26.5) and to increase insulinemia (14.4±15.1 vs. 12.7±10.8) at intensities close to maximum oxygen uptake. The addition of PRO to a pre-exercise CHO beverage had no impact on running performance and related metabolic variables at a wide spectrum of exercise intensities.

Application of Yoga in Recovery Training of Middle and Long Distance Running

Application of Yoga in Recovery Training of Middle and Long Distance Running

Can We Quantify the Benefits of "Super Spikes" in Track Running?

The recent and rapid developments in track spike innovation have been followed by a wave of record-breaking times and top performances. This has led many to question what role “super spikes” play in improving running performance. To date, the specific contributions of new innovations in footwear, including lightweight, resilient, and compliant midsole foam, altered geometry, and increased longitudinal bending stiffness, to track running performance are unknown. Based on current literature, we speculate about what advantages these features provide. Importantly, the effects of super spikes will vary based on several factors including the event (e.g., 100 m vs. 10,000 m) and the characteristics of the athlete wearing them. Further confounding our understanding of super spikes is the difficulty of testing them. Unlike marathon shoes, testing track spikes comes with a unique challenge of quantifying the metabolic energy demands of middle-distance running events, which are partly anaerobic. Quantifying the exact benefits from super spikes is difficult and we may need to rely on comparison of track performances pre- and post- the introduction of super spikes.

Free Achilles tendon strain during selected rehabilitation, locomotor, jumping, and landing tasks

A better understanding of the strains experienced by the Achilles tendon during commonly prescribed exercises and locomotor tasks is needed to improve efficacy of Achilles tendon training and rehabilitation programs. The aim of this study was to estimate in vivo free Achilles tendon strain during selected rehabilitation, locomotor, jumping, and landing tasks. Sixteen trained runners with no symptoms of Achilles tendinopathy participated in this study. Personalised free Achilles tendon moment arm and force-strain curve were obtained from imaging data and used in conjunction with motion capture and surface electromyography to estimate free Achilles tendon strain using electromyogram-informed neuromusculoskeletal modelling. There was a strong correspondence between Achilles tendon force estimates from the present study and experimental data reported in the literature (R2 > 0.85). The average tendon strain was highest for maximal hop landing (8.8±1.6%), lowest for walking at 1.4 m/s (3.1±0.8%) and increased with locomotor speed during running (run 3.0 m/s: 6.5±1.6%; run 5.0 m/s: 7.9±1.7%) and during heel rise exercise with added mass (BW: 5.8±1.3%; 1.2 BW: 6.9±1.7%). The peak tendon strain was highest during running (5 m/s: 13.7±2.5%) and lowest during walking (1.4 m/s: 7±1.8%). Overall findings provide a preliminary evidence base for exercise selection to maximise anabolic tendon remodelling during training and rehabilitation of the Achilles tendon.

Unusual cause of lumbar pain in elite sports: 2 case reports of sacral stress fractures

Nonspecific lower back and buttock pain can significantly limit performance in athletes and can be of different origins. Sacral stress fractures are a rare and, in many cases, undiagnosed cause of lower back pain, which can lead to a substantial loss of time before a full return-to-sports is achieved with full athletic performance. The main risk factors of sacral stress fractures include repetitive full weight-bearing activities, short-term increases in exercise intensity or duration, and excessive energy deficit. Knowledge of the injury pattern, high clinical suspicion, and early MRI examination lead to a timely diagnosis. Therapeutically, load reduction with avoidance of high impact activities for at least 6 weeks is indicated initially, followed by dosed and progressive load increase. In parallel, supplementation with calcium and vitamin D is recommended. Athletes with recurrent stress fractures, regardless of region, should be evaluated for a “Female Athlete Triad” or its male counterpart, as well as endocrinologic risk factors. Preventive measures are possible for stress fractures but are not specific to sacral stress fractures. We describe two clinical case scenarios, one of a professional soccer player and one of an elite track and field athlete with sacral stress fractures as the cause of nonspecific lumbar pain. Key Words: Lower Back Pain, Sacrum, Football,Middle Distance Running

Anaerobic Speed Reserve, Sprint Force-Velocity Profile, Kinematic Characteristics, and Jump Ability among Elite Male Speed- and Endurance-Adapted Milers.

This study aimed to compare sprint, jump performance, and sprint mechanical variables between endurance-adapted milers (EAM, specialized in 1500–3000-m) and speed-adapted milers (SAM, specialized in 800–1500 m) and to examine the relationships between maximal sprint speed (MSS), anaerobic speed reserve (ASR), sprint, jump performance, and sprint mechanical characteristics of elite middle-distance runners. Fifteen participants (8 EAM; 7 SAM) were evaluated to obtain their maximal aerobic speed, sprint mechanical characteristics (force–velocity profile and kinematic variables), jump, and sprint performance. SAM displayed greater MSS, ASR, horizontal jump, sprint performance, and mechanical ability than EAM (p < 0.05). SAM also showed higher stiffness in the 40-m sprint (p = 0.026) and a higher ratio of horizontal-to-resultant force (RF) at 10 m (p = 0.003) and RFpeak (p = 0.024). MSS and ASR correlated with horizontal (r = 0.76) and vertical (r = 0.64) jumps, all sprint split times (r ≤ −0.85), stiffness (r = 0.86), and mechanical characteristics (r ≥ 0.56) during the 100-m sprint, and physical qualities during acceleration (r ≥ 0.66) and sprint mechanical effectiveness from the force–velocity profile (r ≥ 0.69). Season-best times in the 800 m were significantly correlated with MSS (r = −0.86). Sprint ability has a crucial relevance in middle-distance runners’ performance, especially for SAM.

Research On Selection of Specialized Physical Exercises to Develop Aerobic and Anaerobic Ability for Female Students Who Specialize In Middle Distance Running Courses 38 And 37 - Faculty of Sport Training - Ho Chi Minh City University Of Sports, Vietnam

Research On Selection of Specialized Physical Exercises to Develop Aerobic and Anaerobic Ability for Female Students Who Specialize In Middle Distance Running Courses 38 And 37 - Faculty of Sport Training - Ho Chi Minh City University Of Sports, Vietnam

The Impact of an Online Sport Psychology Intervention for Middle-Distance Runners: Should Self-Regulation or Mindfulness Be Prioritized?

The purpose of this study was to qualitatively examine the impact of an online self-regulation intervention (SI) and mindfulness intervention (MI) in improving exercise-induced-pain (EIP) management, mental performance (i.e., SI and MI), and mental health. A sample of 16 middle-distance runners who participated in an 8-week SI or MI was purposefully selected based on the participants’ high, moderate, and low pre–post intervention evolution scores. Findings, which were generated by performing a codebook thematic analysis, suggest that both the SI and MI positively impacted EIP management, mental performance, and mental health. EIP literacy enabled the participants from both interventions to more effectively manage EIP. Furthermore, screening for mental illness symptoms and referring athletes in a timely manner to appropriate mental health practitioners was perceived as essential for them to receive the care and support they needed. Finally, a hybrid delivery format may be the most effective when providing online sport psychology interventions.

Analysis of Metabonomic Characteristics after Exercise Fatigue Based on NMR.

In order to better understand the changes of body metabolism of athletes before and after exercise, this paper proposes a method of metabonomics feature analysis after exercise fatigue based on NMR. This paper makes a retrospective analysis on the metabonomic characteristics of urine of middle and long distance runners after 30 minutes of a heavy load training class based on NMR. The experiment analyzes the urine of athletes by combining NMR technology and metabonomics principle. The experimental results show that the Q2 value of this experiment is greater than that of all comparisons, and r2x and r2y are 0.436 and 0.85, respectively. Conclusion. This method can effectively analyze the changes of body metabolism after athletes' fatigue, so as to better alleviate athletes' fatigue after exercise.

Could middle- and long-distance running performance of well-trained athletes be best predicted by the same aerobic parameters?

The prediction of running performance at different competitive distances is a challenge, since it can be influenced by several physiological, morphological and biomechanical factors. In experienced male runners heterogeneous for maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), endurance running performance can be well predicted by several key parameters of aerobic fitness such as VO2max and its respective velocity (vVO2max), running economy, blood lactate response to exercise, oxygen uptake kinetics and critical velocity. However, for a homogeneous group of well-trained endurance runners, the relationship between aerobic fitness parameters and endurance running performance seems to be influenced by the duration of the race (i.e., middle vs. long). Although middle-distance and ultramarathon runners present high aerobic fitness levels, there is no accumulating evidence showing that the aerobic key parameters influence both 800-m and ultramarathon performance in homogeneous group of well-trained runners. The vVO2max seems to be the best predictor of performance for 1500 m. For 3000 m, both vVO2max and blood lactate response to exercise are the main predictors of performance. Finally, for long distance events (5000 m, 10,000 m, marathon and ultramarathon), blood lactate response seems to be main predictor of performance. The different limiting/determinants factors and/or training-induced changes in aerobic parameters can help to explain this time- or distance-dependent pattern.

Correlations between Functional Movement Screening (FMS) Results and the Range of Motion of Lower Limb Joints Young Middle Distance Runners

Background: The relationship between range of motion (ROM) in lower limb joints and Functional movement screen still not clear. The aim of this study was therefore to investigate the correlation between Functional Movement Screening (FMS) results and ROM in lower limb joints. Methods: Forty-eight young middle distance runners (26 men and 22 women) performed an FMS test and a ROM test of the lower limb joints. Nonparametric testing was used to compare the ROM of left and right lower extremities, an independent-sample T-test was used to compare FMS test scores between left and right sides, and Spearman correlation was used to analyze relationships between FMS test results and ROM of lower limb joints. Results: A negative correlation was observed between left hurdle step and ROM of right knee flexion (r = –0.435, p &lt; 0.05), while a positive correlation was observed between right hurdle step and ROM of right ankle flexion (r = 0.392, p &lt; 0.05). A negative correlation was observed between left in-line lunge and ROM of left knee flexion (r = –0.508, p &lt; 0.05), while a positive correlation was observed between right in-line lunge and ROM of right hip extension (r = 0.445, p &lt; 0.05). A positive correlation was observed between left active straight-leg-raise and ROM of left hip flexion (r = 0.464, p &lt; 0.05), and a positive correlation between right rotary stability and ROM of right ankle extension (r = 0.393, p &lt; 0.05). The trunk-stability push-up and ROM of left ankle flexion was negatively correlated (r = –0.446, p &lt; 0.01). Conclusions: FMS test results were significantly correlated with ROM of hip, knee and ankle joints on the sagittal plane, with differences observed between the left and right sides. The ROM of flexion, extension of hip and extension of ankle were positively correlated with the FMS test results, while larger knee flexion and ankle flexion ROM were negatively correlated with FMS test results. We propose that excessive ROM of the knee and ankle could affect the development of stability. The results of this study should help to further our understanding of FMS.

The Race of the Century: The Battle to Break the Four-Minute Mile by Neal Bascomb

Reviewed by: The Race of the Century: The Battle to Break the Four-Minute Mile by Neal Bascomb Elizabeth Bush Bascomb, Neal The Race of the Century: The Battle to Break the Four-Minute Mile. Scholastic Focus, 2022 [256p] illus. with photographs Trade ed. ISBN 9781338628463 $18.99 E-book ed. ISBN 9781338628494 $18.99 Reviewed from digital galleys R Gr. 5-8 Bascomb returns with another successful adaptation of material previously released for an adult audience, in this case his 2004 The Perfect Mile. Three middle distance runners—Britain’s Roger Bannister, Australia’s John Landy, and America’s Wes Santee—returned from the 1952 Olympics in Helsinki without medals but with a new goal: to break the four-minute mile, a feat many runners and scientists believed to beyond human capability. Bascomb delivers a balanced account of the men’s differences in personality, motivation, training regimens, and life responsibilities— they were, after all, amateurs with day jobs. There was also the ever-roiling media speculation that accompanied them ahead of the decisive Vancouver Empire Games of 1954, where Bannister edged out Landy (both breaking the four-minute goal), and Santee was left to cover the race from the commentator’s booth. The historical “Miracle Mile” is a thrilling tale in its own right, certain to enthrall middle school track runners and fans, but Bascomb also opens a window on the evolving status of amateur sportsmen, a preview of the financial and regulatory pressures on unpaid players who are expected to play like pros while funding their own training. An author’s note, bibliography, notes, and index are included. Copyright © 2022 The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois

DETERMINATION OF THE INFLUENCE MECHANISMS OF SUCCINIC ACID-BASED DRUG ON IMPROVING THE STATE OF ERYTHROCYTE LINK OF OXYGEN TRANSPORT DURING AEROBIC PHYSICAL LOADS

Introduction. Strenuous aerobic work inherent to cyclical sports requires adequate oxygenation of the athletes’ working muscles. One of the ways to improve the oxygen transport function of blood is to optimize the structural and functional state of erythrocytes, for example, by using succinic acid in the form of the medical drug Armadin Long. This pharmacological drug is widespread in clinical practice for treating hypoxic and ischemic conditions, and very little is known about its use for improving the condition of the erythrocytes in the blood of athletes, which determined the relevance of this study. The objective of the study was to assess the feasibility and effectiveness of using the medical drug Armadine Long to improve the state of the erythrocyte link of the blood oxygen transport system during aerobic exercise. Materials and Methods. A randomized blinded placebo-controlled trial included 40 male middle-distance runners (aerobic discipline of athletics). The subjects were divided into two subgroups matched for number, age, and anthropometric characteristics (strats). In this work, laboratory methods were used, including hematological tests (in particular, hemoglobin and erythrocytes level measurement and erythrocyte characteristics evaluation), as well as biochemical method: the study of prooxidant and antioxidant balance (activity of lipid peroxidation according to changes in the content of maloniс dialdehyde and antioxidant protection according to changes in the concentration of reduced glutathione) and functional characteristics of erythrocyte membranes (permeability, sorption capacity, sorption capacity of the glycocalyx) as well as evaluation of the main components of lipid and protein composition of red blood cell membranes. Pedagogical research methods were based on the determination of relative aerobic capacity using the generally accepted PWC170 test. Results of the study. During 21 days of intensive loads, an almost two-fold increase in contents of malonic dialdehyde was observed with a parallel decrease in reduced glutathione content by 23.5 % during aerobic loads. At the same time, there was a deterioration of the functional characteristics of erythrocytes and a decrease in the relative aerobic capacity in comparison with the baseline data. The use of the medical drug Armadine Long at a dose of 600 mg per day improved the indicated characteristics of erythrocytes. At the same time, there were positive changes in the protein and lipid state of the erythrocyte membranes, and the athletes’ aerobic power increased by 38.7%. It substantiates the high ergogenic ability of succinic acid, which is based on the normalization of the lipoperoxidation process and the improvement of the structural and functional characteristics of erythrocyte membranes.

Action Study of Long-Distance Running

In the process of 50 freshmen 'middle-distance running technology physical education teaching, including physical education classroom teaching, students' extracurricular exercise, extracurricular exercise and other physical exercise guidance, action research is adopted to explore the effective strategies of physical education teaching and students' independent exercise. The results show that the students 'learning objectives are more clear, their learning enthusiasm for learning and independent physical exercise has been improved, their students' self-monitoring ability for scientific exercise has been improved, and their overall academic performance has been improved significantly.

Pacing Profiles of Middle-Distance Running World Records in Men and Women.

The aims of the current study were to compare the pacing patterns of all-time 800 m, 1500 m and mile running world records (WRs) and to determine whether differences exist between sexes, and if 800 m and 1500 m WRs were broken during championship or meet races. Overall and lap times for men and women’s 800 m, 1500 m, and mile WRs from World Athletics were collected when available and subsequently compared. A fast initial 200 m segment and a decrease in speed throughout was found during 800 m WRs. Accordingly, the first 200 m and 400 m were faster than the last 200 m and 400 m, respectively (p < 0.001, 0.77 ≤ ES ≤ 1.86). The first 400 m and 409 m for 1500 m and mile WRs, respectively, were faster than the second lap (p < 0.001, 0.74 ≤ ES ≤ 1.46). The third 400 m lap was slower than the last 300 m lap and 400 m lap for 1500 m and mile WRs, respectively (p < 0.001, 0.48 ≤ ES ≤ 1.09). No relevant sex-based differences in pacing strategy were found in any event. However, the first 409 m lap was faster than the last 400 m lap for men but not for women during mile WRs. Women achieved a greater % of WRs than men during championships (80% vs. 45.83% in the 800 m, and 63.63% vs. 31.58% in the 1500 m, respectively). In conclusion, positive, reverse J-shaped and U-shaped pacing profiles were used to break 800 m, men’s mile and 1500 m, and women’s mile WRs, respectively. WRs are more prone to be broken during championships by women than men.

Merging observational and interview data to study and improve the adaptability of the products of didactic engineering to ordinary teaching in physical education

ABSTRACT Introduction Our team of researchers proposed volunteer teachers to experiment with reference situations (RS) in middle-distance running, within the framework of a didactic engineering. During the conception stage, these RS were designed to serve as a starting point and an assessment tool of a teaching sequence. During the experimentation stage, teachers were expected to provide students with additional learning tasks and experiences that targeted the learning issues resulting from a priori analysis of the RS by the research team. Purpose In line with previous research in mathematics and PE showing that the transmission of the products of didactic engineering was not self-evident, we focused on the ways teachers had reappropriated the RS and had dealt with their associated learning issues with the support of researchers. We illustrated how mixed methods have been heuristic for this purpose. Methods and results We used a mixed-methods design merging observational and interview data. Eight primary school teachers participated in this study, the first layer of which focusing on the ways they addressed learning issues related to the RS. For each teacher, one researcher recorded four lessons and collected written documents. Then, through a priori analysis of the tasks whose purpose was learning and analysis of teacher and students’ joint action, the researcher recorded in a synopsis if the learning issues were (a) missing, (b) potential or (c) taught. These analyses showed that learning issues were taught little, if at all, by teachers. We restricted to the case of one PE teacher (George) the illustration of the second layer of our mixed-methods design, focusing on how teachers’ practical epistemology impacted the ways RS and learning issues conceived by the research team were transformed or adapted in the class. Observational data were articulated with the teacher’s reflexive verbalisations generated within one self-confrontation interview after two lessons and one semi-structured interview at the end of the experimentation. The results obtained in the case of George helped to understand how and why he had reappropriated the RS in a way that was unexpected to the research team. For example, his experience made him consider that teaching middle-distance running meant above all acting on students’ mental attributes. This experiential dimension of George’s practical epistemology was in line with his progressive way of confronting students with the RS. Moreover, the researcher succeeded in acting on George’s practical epistemology regarding the interest and the possibility of teaching running techniques. Discussion and conclusion Our mixed-methods design proved to be suitable for studying and improving the adaptability of the products of didactic engineering to ordinary teaching in PE in a more dialectical way. Our results challenge the relatively large number of learning issues to be taught, the complexity to teach them and their compatibility with teachers’ practical epistemology, which has nevertheless been shown to be evolving. These findings are crucial in the perspective of a wide dissemination of curricular resources aiming at renewing the teaching of PE in line with the current competency-based approach.