Russian Middle Class Research Articles

Class rivalry in ethno-national migration: Soviet intelligentsia vs. the Russian middle class in Israel

ABSTRACT While most research on stigmatization in migration deals with the prejudice of locals toward immigrants, this article analyzes the symbolic rivalry and contest vividly present in the intra-group Russian-language immigrant discourse in Israel. Drawing on our recent digital ethnography, we focus on the heated discussion between the two social class-based groups – the Soviet-Jewish ‘Intelligentsia’, oldcomers from the Soviet Union to Israel, and the recent migration from Putin’s Russia. If the first is a remnant of the Soviet social structure, the latter is the symbolic successor of the former and is part of the post-Soviet transition. In our interpretation of the harsh digital exchange, we build on the conceptualization of educated middle-class migration and then employ the theoretical lenses of scapegoating and Orientalization – mechanisms of inter-group stigmatization that are both universal and driven by particular scripts of social relations. Our analysis contributes to understanding the broader context of contemporary migration by demonstrating the role played by significant social categories borrowed from home in post-migration processes and group relations. In addition, the article offers a pioneering sociological portrait of the new post-Soviet immigrant group leaving Russia under Putin’s regime.

The Paths from Middle Class: Evaluation of the Poverty Risks for the Russian Middle Class

The Paths from Middle Class: Evaluation of the Poverty Risks for the Russian Middle Class

МОЛОДЁЖЬ КАК ПОТЕНЦИАЛ ФОРМИРОВАНИЯ И РАЗВИТИЯ СРЕДНЕГО КЛАССА В СОВРЕМЕННОМ РОССИЙСКОМ ОБЩЕСТВЕ

The article provides methodological grounds for identifying the middle class in general and the representatives of the youth middle class in particular. It is especially noted that representatives of the middle class serve as the state support in the socio-political sphere, as they have a high level of legal consciousness, civil and political culture, are the main driving force of reforms and innovations in the socio-economic sphere, bearers and disseminators of highly cultural and moral values in the spiritual -cultural sphere of modern Russian society and actively relay all of the above to other segments of the population. Accordingly, expanding the boundaries of the middle class is one of the primary tasks for Russian society, and young people are the immediate potential for its development. All of the above determined the purpose of the work - on the basis of the developed methodology, to identify the characteristics of youth as the potential for the formation of the middle class in modern Russian society, to draw up a portrait of young representatives of the middle class. The article presents a comprehensive methodology for identifying the middle class in general and its young representatives in particular, as well as its theoretical model, including the core, semi-core, near and far periphery. This model involves the use of such criteria as socio-professional, self-identification, leisure and recreational and the criterion of personal responsibility. The aprobation of the presented methodology was carried out in the sociological laboratory of the Department of Sociology and Social Technologies as part of the study “Youth as the potential for the development of the middle class.” An analysis of the youth middle class according to all the stated criteria allowed us to assert that it is this social group that has the immediate potential for the development and expansion of the Russian middle class.

Прекариат в России: от «опасного класса» к нормализующему дискурсу

The article is devoted to the problematique of using the concept of precariat in the Russian scientific literature. Having fixed the lack of consensus about the criteria of the precariat, its social composition and even its very existence as a class, the author suggests one should proceed from the fact that precariat is part of an ideological rather than a scientific discourse, similar to the discourse of the middle class, with which it has a clear continuity. These discourses are functional for the reproduction of the existing social relations. Therefore, the article attempts to study discourse that is used to describe precariat in Russia, and to comprehend for the reproduction of what relations it is functional. The research conducted by the author shows that the Russian interpretation of the precariat differs markedly from the Western one. This applies to both the composition of the precariat and its place in the social structure. The Russian authors draw a picture of a specific Russian precariat, which includes almost half of the society. This precariat bears little resemblance to the Western one, but almost completely coincides with the Russian middle class, as the Russian ruling circles view it. Since the state is able to conduct a dialogue with this kind of precariat, which is a passively suffering and no longer dangerous class that does not undermine the foundations of the system, the discourse about precariat and precarization is turning into the same potentially legitimate kind of normalizing discourse as the one about the middle class.

МЕСТО И ПЕРСПЕКТИВЫ СРЕДНЕГО КЛАССА В СОВРЕМЕННОЙ РОССИИ

Objective of the study is to consider the main factors influencing the situation of the modern Russian middle class, such as consumer ideology, under-consumption, the influence of global capitalism, the artificial environment formed in modern times on the state of the middle class in Russia. The structure of the study includes consideration of the specifics of the Russian middle class, then it is proved that the state of the middle class is determined by consumption, and its level differs depending on the distance of the regions. Next, we assess the negative impact of global factors and consumer ideology on the middle class, and consider the modern exploitation implemented in the sphere of not only production, but also consumption. It is assumed that in order to maintain the economic condition of the middle class, cooperative or associative forms of interaction are necessary, which contribute to the disclosure of collectively reproducible forms of human existence. In conclusion, the main results of the study are presented. The methodological basis of the research are the comparative method and the dialectical method, based on the theoretical propositions of Marxism. Research results. 1. The present situation of the middle class in Russia is revealed. 2. The nature of the impact of modern negative factors on society, including the middle class, is considered; 3. It is noted that the reason for the unstable situation of the middle class is consumerism and the underdevelopment of the material basis, so it is necessary to improve the material and spiritual sphere of society. Prospects of the study lie in the possibility of finding constructive ways to solve the problem associated with the scientific establishment of a specific status of the middle class in Russia in industrial and social relations as the basic superstructure foundations of society. To this end, the author substantiates the need to identify ways to improve the spiritual sphere of Russian society on the basis of a developed basis, as well as the formation of a stable middle class, which, with the help of cooperation, can overcome some instability associated with its position in the labor market. It is assumed that further development of opportunities for the expansion and development of the stability of the middle class will be possible while overcoming some of the negative aspects of the present time.  

Personal income tax: Reforms in Russia and their impact on the income inequality

The article explores the problem of income inequality of the population in the con? text of the income taxation. Methodologically, the study relies on the theoretical propositions of monetary inequality and individual income taxation. The research methods include structural-logical analysis, comparison, identification of cause-and-effect relationships, and data ranking. The author generalises about the methods for measuring the level of monetary inequality of incomes, determines their specifics and reliability. The paper presents the results of calculations of the income inequality level in the Russian Federation against the background of the configuration and stratification alternatives of income inequality in other countries. The researcher concludes that the level of income inequality in the Russian Federation is higher than in the European countries and lower than in the BRICS countries; the gap between the richest one percent and the middle class in Russia is the largest in the world, while there is no extreme poverty. The analysis of the individual income taxation in the OECD countries reveals that the majority of the countries adopt a progressive scale with 2–19 schedules and non-taxable amounts. The paper proposes introducing in the Russian Federation a progressive personal income tax scale consisting of 4–6 schedules with a maximum rate of about 40 % for rich and super-rich taxpayers. Simultaneously, a standard tax deduction in the amount of at least two subsistence rates should be established. The findings of the study of? fer prospects for further reforming of income taxation in Russia to stimulate economic growth.

Perspective for the becoming of the middle class in Russia

Perspective for the becoming of the middle class in Russia

The study of the conditions for the formation of the middle class in Russia using the factor model of the quality of life of people

The article substantiates the need to study the conditions for the formation of the middle class. Various approaches to the assessment of the middle class are considered and the author's approach based on factor modeling of balanced personality development is justified. The model clearly allows us to understand the reasons for the extremely low share of the middle Russian class, the lack of coordination of institutional changes with the harmonious development of the individual. This is due to the unevenness of ownership of production elements, the factors of the impossibility of changing the social status for people with higher education and demanded qualifications. Based on the simulated factors of life satisfaction and comfort of living of the population, a sociological survey was carried out, the results of which were processed using economic and mathematical methods and presented in graphic form. The author substantiates the use of the factor model of population quality of life management for the formation of methods and technologies for managing a set of measures that allow influencing the increase in the share of the middle class.

Определение величины среднего класса в России по совокупности критериев «уровень образования – профессиональный статус»

The Middle class of society performs many useful and significant functions in the development of any state. To conduct a balanced socio-economic policy, the state needs to know the social structure of society, including the share of the middle class in the total population, as well as the dynamics of its development. To this end, the paper substantiates the author's criteria for distinguishing the middle class among employees by level of education and professional status. The size of the middle class in Russia is determined for each of the above criteria separately and in their entirety. A comparative analysis of the results obtained is presented, based on which, at the end of the work, directions for increasing the middle class in the country are proposed.

Russian middle class: Structure and financial behavior

While the term “middle class” is widely used in economic literature, its quantitative estimates vary greatly, and the choice of an appropriate methodology is one of the key issues. Applying the base income approach together with behavioral metrics, we estimated the share of the Russian middle class at around 32% of population in 2018, the lowest level in the last decade. The deterioration observed in the position of the middle class was partially mirrored in the behavioral changes. This group of population was less engaged in the credit boom which started since 2016 and did not actively use financial leverage to support its consumption. Finally, the Russian middle class has changed its social landscape: the analysis of its occupational activity shows a strong shift towards state employment rather than entrepreneurial activity.

Middle class’ investment in human capital: Consumption of paid services in education and medicine

The topic of the middle class is back among the most relevant in recent years against the background of searching for growth drivers for the economy and the key to social stability of society. The expectations placed on the middle class often seem excessive and contradictory, but there are perspectives in which this stratum of society differs significantly from other Russians. This article examines the role of the middle class as a provider of changes and new standards of consumption through investment practices in the development of human capital. The focus is on the consumption of paid services in education and health, both in dynamics over a period of almost 20 years, and based on data from a special cross-sectional study of the middle class conducted in 2018. An assessment of the dynamics of consumption of paid services shows that the Russian middle class is actively increasing investment in human capital in favorable economic conditions and is trying to maintain the existing level of consumption in times of crisis, while remaining the leader in the consumption of these services among the population. A factor model of investment behavior of the middle class built on the data of a special cross-sectional survey highlights the differentiation of behavior of various socio-economic groups in its composition. The study takes into account the heterogeneity of the middle class and analyzes the behavior of its core and other representatives.

Средний класс в фокусе экономического и социологического подходов: границы и внутренняя структура (на примере России)

Цитирование: Тихонова Н.Е. (2020) Средний класс в фокусе экономического и социологического подходов: границы и внутренняя структура (на примере России) // Мир России. Т. 29. № 4. С. 34–56. DOI: 10.17323/1811-038X-2020-29-4-34-56
 Основные подходы к изучению среднего класса – экономический и социологический – исходят из разных теоретических предпосылок и используются для решения различных исследовательских задач. Если экономический подход важен прежде всего для целей социальной политики, то социологический позволяет лучше понять сущность определенного социума и характер его социальной структуры, выявить основные противоречия в развитии последней. Каждый из них существует во множестве вариантов, однако выделенный в рамках экономического подхода средний класс – это всегда средние по их благосостоянию или текущим доходам слои, включающие нижний средний и собственно средний классы. В России понимаемый таким образом средний класс составляет около двух третей населения. Выделенный в рамках социологического подхода средний класс, напротив, объединяет индивидов, занимающих срединные позиции в основных иерархиях социальных статусов, различающихся престижностью различных позиций в них. Ключевыми из них являются иерархии власти, собственности, текущих экономических возможностей/образа жизни и определяемого ими престижа. Как всякая социальная группа, средний класс характеризуется наличием в нем ядра и периферии этого ядра, но может быть структурирован и по слоям (в рамках вертикальной модели стратификации). В статье показано, что срединные позиции сразу во всех основных статусных иерархиях сейчас занимает сравнительно небольшая (около 8%) часть массовых слоев российского общества. В силу консистентности их статусов можно говорить о них как о ядре среднего класса. Однако более типичной для современной России является ситуация, когда эти позиции в большей или меньшей степени не совпадают (неконсистентны). В этом случае важно понять, какие из групп с неконсистентными статусами могут быть отнесены к среднему классу и почему. Пример такого анализа, приведенный в статье, демонстрирует, что в России численность среднего класса составляет сейчас около 40% населения.

The Democratization Potential of the Middle Class in Russia

The paper on the case study of the contemporary regime in Russia questions the classical theory of the positive influence of middle classes on democratization processes. The author introduces arguments for the following three hypotheses. (1) An essential part of the middle class in Russia is dependent on the state, predominantly in the form of employment in the state sector. (2) This dependence is the main reason why the middle class in Russia keeps preserving the status quo. (3) The middle class in contemporary Russia, therefore, does not serve as a support for the democratic transformation of the regime. The author employs a method of statistical data analysis and concludes that the Russian middle class prefers a strong state to individual freedom and expresses deeper support for the state institutions than the lower class. The author offers the explanation based on the strong relations between the middle class and the state in Russia, supported by the data showing that public sector employees are the fastest growing segment of the Russian middle class.

STRATIFICATION OF MODERN RUSSIAN SOCIETY: METHODOLOGY, ANALYSIS AND TREND

The conducted research in modern conditions allows to allocate such classes in society as rich, average, poor and beggar. Stratification is basing on four criteria, established and justified by the author. The offered technique of social stratification includes 34 indicators, grouped in four blocks. Its transparency, clarity of reflection of vital realities in concrete indicators and availability of information on the specified criteria provide practicality of its realization in life. By results of the conducted survey of 200 experts (as of 01.01.2019), classes are represented in the following order of types and ratios: rich 7-9 %, average 20,9 %, the others – poor and beggar classes. Unfortunately, the trend of increasing reduction of the middle class in Russia and exhaustion of its potential is observed.

Precarization of the Middle Class of the New Russia: What are the Results of a Study of Heterogeneous Middle Strata?

The paper aims to study the heterogeneity of the middle classes in the new Russia. Drawing from the monitoring survey data collected by the Institute of Sociology of FCTAS RAS, 2015 and 2018, the author employed Bayesian latent class analysis to detect Russian middle class and its main subgroups. In 2015 and 2018 it counted 58% and 61% of the population, respectively. Precarization of the middle is occurring in the lower stratum of the middle class, which comprises up to half of the middle class. The paper aims to study the heterogeneity of the middle classes in the new Russia. Drawing from the monitoring survey data collected by the Institute of Sociology of FCTAS RAS, 2015 and 2018, the author employed Bayesian latent class analysis to detect Russian middle class and its main subgroups. In 2015 and 2018 it counted 58% and 61% of the population, respectively. Precarization of the middle is occurring in the lower stratum of the middle class, which comprises up to half of the middle class.

Stalled Social Mobility in Post-Soviet Russia

“The fall of the Soviet Union sparked hopes that a Russian middle class would emerge and thrive, but so far it has not.” Second in a series on social mobility around the world.

СОВРЕМЕННОЕ РОССИЙСКОЕ ОБЩЕСТВО КАК ПРОСТРАНСТВО КОНФЛИКТА

The article considers the contradictions and conflicts that are characteristic of modern Russian society. The processes of social disintegration are analyzed and interpreted as a result of fundamental social and economic transformations. The problems of economic inequality are presented in the historical perspective in close connection with the previous stages of Russia's socioeconomic development. Significant polarization of the population is one of the most significant conflict factors in modern society, which leads to an increase in protest moods and may in the long term threaten social upheavals. Nevertheless, dissatisfaction with the socio-economic situation does not lead to ideas of the unification and consolidation of society, but find expression in social conflicts. The emergence and development of social conflicts is influenced by a number of factors: economic, ethnic, religious. One of the most important characteristics of society is its social structure. After the collapse of the USSR, the previous social structure was abolished, and a new social reality was formed in Russia. When considering the stratification structure of society, most attention is paid to the middle class, which is considered the backbone of a stable society. The middle class in Russia is in the stage of formation, it is hardly possible to speak of a complete analogy with the middle class of Western society. The share of middle class in society can be estimated in different ways depending on the methodological approaches used by researchers. An important consequence of the transformation of the social structure was the problem of marginalization, since the dismantling of the old social structure and the slow formation of the new one put the social status and place in the division of labor system of many individuals into question. The sharp impoverishment of representatives of prestigious professions led to a reassessment of their situation, especially for the younger generation. When analyzing the origins of social conflicts in modern Russian society, it is necessary to consider the issue of the attitude of the broad masses of the population to power and national elites. It should be noted that power in Russia historically takes shape around specific leaders and does not have an institutional character. The most significant factor shaping the attitude towards the authorities and the elite in general in Russian society are the economic results of the market reforms that have taken place. Only a small part of the population believes that they won as a result of the changes that have taken place, the natural consequence of which is the population's distrust of the authorities and, in general, political institutions.

СОВРЕМЕННОЕ РОССИЙСКОЕ ОБЩЕСТВО КАК ПРОСТРАНСТВО КОНФЛИКТА

The article considers the contradictions and conflicts that are characteristic of modern Russian society. The processes of social disintegration are analyzed and interpreted as a result of fundamental social and economic transformations. The problems of economic inequality are presented in the historical perspective in close connection with the previous stages of Russia's socioeconomic development. Significant polarization of the population is one of the most significant conflict factors in modern society, which leads to an increase in protest moods and may in the long term threaten social upheavals. Nevertheless, dissatisfaction with the socio-economic situation does not lead to ideas of the unification and consolidation of society, but find expression in social conflicts. The emergence and development of social conflicts is influenced by a number of factors: economic, ethnic, religious. One of the most important characteristics of society is its social structure. After the collapse of the USSR, the previous social structure was abolished, and a new social reality was formed in Russia. When considering the stratification structure of society, most attention is paid to the middle class, which is considered the backbone of a stable society. The middle class in Russia is in the stage of formation, it is hardly possible to speak of a complete analogy with the middle class of Western society. The share of middle class in society can be estimated in different ways depending on the methodological approaches used by researchers. An important consequence of the transformation of the social structure was the problem of marginalization, since the dismantling of the old social structure and the slow formation of the new one put the social status and place in the division of labor system of many individuals into question. The sharp impoverishment of representatives of prestigious professions led to a reassessment of their situation, especially for the younger generation. When analyzing the origins of social conflicts in modern Russian society, it is necessary to consider the issue of the attitude of the broad masses of the population to power and national elites. It should be noted that power in Russia historically takes shape around specific leaders and does not have an institutional character. The most significant factor shaping the attitude towards the authorities and the elite in general in Russian society are the economic results of the market reforms that have taken place. Only a small part of the population believes that they won as a result of the changes that have taken place, the natural consequence of which is the population's distrust of the authorities and, in general, political institutions.

DO MIDDLE STRATA STABILIZE THE RUSSIAN SOCIETY?

The purpose of the article is to assess the scale and constructiveness of socio-political activity of medium income groups (strata) forming the basis of the middle class in the Russian context of 2010s. The article is based on the analysis of the data of all-Russian surveys conducted by the Institute of Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences from 2008 till 2016 according to the all-Russian sample representing the country’s population by regions of living, and within regions — by sex, age, level of education and type of settlement. Socio-political activism of middle income groups of Russia is considered in two aspects: the survey data regarding how these strata representatives participate in different kinds of socio-political activity are analyzed first, followed by the study of their views on the possible future forms of such participation as a response to any “challenges“. It is concluded that the strata with medium income are not yet performing the expected function of a political stabilizer in contemporary Russia. As compared to all other strata, the highest level of real involvement in the social interaction and political participation network is demonstrated not by a middle-income, but a high profit group of the Russian population. At the same time, concerns associated with Olson-Huntington model, that the middle strata will turn out to be a generator of radicalism have not been confirmed either. It is shown that in contemporary Russia people with average income occupy, as a rule, an intermediate position between the most politically active and constructive high-profit group, on the one hand, and politically the least active group with low income, whose representatives are rather inclined to radical protest, on the other hand. This means that the role of socio-political stabilizer in modern Russia is most consistently played only by the upper part of the middle class, and the destabilizing role is more noticeable in the lower strata of the middle class. Such a “blurred nature“ of socio-political characteristics confirms a viewpoint on the undeveloped character of the Russian middle class as a special mass social agent.

The Middle Class Is Getting Out of the Crisis, but Has Apprehensions About the Future

The social well-being of the Russian middle class in terms of the dynamics of its financial standing and opportunities of successful self-actualization has somewhat improved. According to representatives of the middle class, the prospects of self-actualization depend primarily on a high level of education, rather than an opportunity to start one’s own business or find a new job. However, more than a half of the respondents from the core and close periphery of the middle class fear the future.