Mid-20th Century Research Articles

Characterization of periods of high and low hydrological activity in the Loire River, France, between the 14th and mid-19th centuries

The Loire River watershed accounts for a fifth of metropolitan France. Nevertheless, knowledge of past floods of the Loire River and its tributaries is still very limited. This study aimed to carry out an unprecedented census of floods in the Loire River, during the Little Ice Age (LIA), from the 14th century to the mid-19th century, in order to detect periods of high and low hydrological activity. The abundant historical archives in the cities of Nevers and Decize, as well as other archives consulted, enabled us to record 303 flood events, including 220 in the study area between Digoin and Nevers in Burgundy. This census is heterogeneous over the centuries, with the majority of newly recorded flood events taking place during the 14th and 15th centuries, first half of the 16th century, and 18th and 19th centuries. The use of two types of flood indexes enabled this study to overcome the documentary bias, and detect several decadal periods of high or low hydrological activity during the LIA in the Loire River. Almost all these periods can be found on other rivers in both France and Europe, the Loire River being exposed to the confluence of several climatic influences, as confirmed by comparisons with the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), Grand Solar minima and temperature fluctuations. Nevertheless, the coldest periods of the LIA, coupled with negative NAO positions, correspond to periods of high hydrological activity in the Loire River. The study of flood seasonality also reveals a high degree of variability during the LIA, with a higher proportion of flood events occurring in summer and autumn compared with the current seasonal pattern.

Hormonal profile changes under the influence of environmental factors in children residing in the Aral environmental disaster region

BACKGROUND: Since the mid 20th century, the Southern Aral Sea Region is notorious as a region of ecological disaster, where anthropogenic influence led to the desiccation of the Aral Sea. Aridization of these territories is the cause of accumulation of endocrine disrupting chemicals — pesticides and toxic metals in soil and water.
 AIM: The aim of this study was to assess the changes in hormonal profile under the influence of environmental factors in prepubertal children living at different distances from the epicenter of the Aral ecological disaster.
 MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study included 58 male children aged 11–13 years. All children from birth lived in two regions of the Aral Sea Region and were divided into two groups depending on their place of residence. The group “North” (unfavorable conditions) consisted of 27 children from Muynak, Kungrad, Karauzyak, Takhtakupyr districts. The “Nukus” group (relatively favorable conditions) included 31 volunteers from Nukus city. All children were determined the concentration of IGF-1 — Insulin-like growth factor 1, GH — growth gormone, TT — total testosterone, E2 — estradiol, FSH — follicle-stimulating hormone, LH — luteinizing hormone, TSH — thyroid-stimulating hormone, TT3 — total triiodothyronine in blood sample. The statistical significance of the differences of the mentioned hormones in children from the “North” and “Nukus” groups was checked using the Mann–Whitney test.
 RESULTS: This analysis revealed statistically significantly higher values of TT, FSH and LH in children from the “Nukus” group compared to their peers from the “North” group. The concentrations of IGF-1, GH, E2, TTG and T3 in blood plasma in volunteers from both groups were not statistically significantly different.
 CONCLUSIONS: The environment of the Aral ecological disaster region with increased content of organochlorine compounds, pesticides and heavy metals changes the endocrine status in local prepubertal children. This is expressed in a moderate decrease in the activity of androgens (but not estrogens) and gonadotropic hormones. This research work can be considered as a pilot study, which determines the need for further monitoring of endocrine disorders in children and adults living in negative environmental conditions.

The Use of Immersion Oil in Parasitology Light Microscopic Examination

Aims: to briefly review the history of application of immersion oil and specifically in some Parasitology Microscopic examination.
 Discussion: One way of increasing the optical resolving power of the microscope is to use immersion liquids between the front lens of the objective and the cover slip. The application of immersion oil in microscopic examination began in the mid-17th century. The principle of immersion oil in microscopic examination is to improve the resolution and clarity of the image by reducing the refractive index mismatch between the specimen and the objective lens. In the context of micro-sized parasitic agent, adding this oil will greatly enhanced visualization and in turn will have a direct impact on improving the characteristic morphological image/appearance, thereby enabling observers to optimize microscopic assessment for parasitological examination. Protozoan parasites such as Plasmodium spp, Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, Microsporidia spp., Trichomonas vaginalis, Toxoplasma spp, Trypanosoma spp, Babesia spp, Leishmania spp, Cyclospora cayetanensis, and Blastocystis hominis are some examples of parasitic organisms that should be viewed at great magnification to see detailed morphology; and for that it means you need to add immersion oil.
 Conclusion: The addition of immersion oil in Paarasitology microscopic examination is surely improve optical resolution and clarity of the image and positively support Parasitologist to make correct diagnosis.

Extending the mid-18th century eruptive record of the Cordón Caulle Volcanic Complex (40,5° S) through the study of three lake sedimentary sequences

The research focuses on the characterization of a tephra level extracted from sedimentary sequences obtained from three lacustrine environments from the northern Patagonia Andean range to define the volcano of origin. The dating of the tephra level corresponds to the mid-18th century but there is no scientific record nor geological evidence of this event. The sediment sequences were collected from lakes Nahuel Huapi, Moreno Oeste, and Tonček, in northern Patagonia, located downwind from the Cordón Caulle Volcanic Complex (CCVC), the potential source, at 45, 86, and 95 km respectively. These environments are frequently impacted by tephra falls from different sources in the Southern Volcanic Zone. Particle morphology, glass and mineral chemistry, together with textural analysis, provided a detailed characterization of the tephra layer recovered at each site. This characterization allowed the association of the tephra material with the CCVC predominantly, with minor Osorno volcano contributions. Historical records of both volcanic systems included eruptions in the mid-18th century (1759 CE and 1752–1796 CE, respectively). Hence, the characterization and the comparison with historical records of volcanic eruptions let us conclude that the tephra is composed of materials dispersed by CCVC in the nearby lakes, whereas contributions from Osorno volcano are observed in environments to the south of the study site, during the mid-18th century. The study demonstrates the potential of this type of detailed characterization in lake sequences to develop and support increasing research on historical volcanic records, helping to improve the knowledge of the volcanic hazard of a region.

Detecting the human fingerprint in the summer 2022 western–central European soil drought

Abstract. In the 2022 summer, western–central Europe and several other regions in the northern extratropics experienced substantial soil moisture deficits in the wake of precipitation shortages and elevated temperatures. Much of Europe has not witnessed a more severe soil drought since at least the mid-20th century, raising the question whether this is a manifestation of our warming climate. Here, we employ a well-established statistical approach to attribute the low 2022 summer soil moisture to human-induced climate change using observation-driven soil moisture estimates and climate models. We find that in western–central Europe, a June–August root zone soil moisture drought such as in 2022 is expected to occur once in 20 years in the present climate but would have occurred only about once per century during preindustrial times. The entire northern extratropics show an even stronger global warming imprint with a 20-fold soil drought probability increase or higher, but we note that the underlying uncertainty is large. Reasons are manifold but include the lack of direct soil moisture observations at the required spatiotemporal scales, the limitations of remotely sensed estimates, and the resulting need to simulate soil moisture with land surface models driven by meteorological data. Nevertheless, observation-based products indicate long-term declining summer soil moisture for both regions, and this tendency is likely fueled by regional warming, while no clear trends emerge for precipitation. Finally, our climate model analysis suggests that under 2 ∘C global warming, 2022-like soil drought conditions would become twice as likely for western–central Europe compared to today and would take place nearly every year across the northern extratropics.

Economic degrowth as a solution to environmental conflicts?

Since the mid-20th century, economic growth has played a crucial role in improving the living conditions of millions of people, raising standards of well-being, and expectations regarding the availability of goods and services. However, the positive transformations have been accompanied by an alarming increase in the exploitation of the planet's resources and the growing income and opportunity inequality, both globally and locally. This article provides preliminary a comparative analysis of natural resource usage across eight regions, based on data from the Global Footprint Network for the year 2018. The results highlight the concerning pattern of the current consumption model: economically developed regions tend to exert disproportionate pressure on degradation, while less affluent regions demonstrate greater environmental regeneration capacity. The need to reconsider economic models with the aim of achieving a balance between socio-economic well-being and natural well-being is emphasized.

An exercise physiologist's guide to metabolomics.

The field of exercise physiology has undergone significant technological advancements since the pioneering works of exercise physiologists in the early to mid-20th century. Historically, the ability to detect metabolites in biofluids from exercising participants was limited to single-metabolite analyses. However, the rise of metabolomics, a discipline focused on the comprehensive analysis of metabolites within a biological system, has facilitated a more intricate understanding of metabolic pathways and networks in exercise. This review explores some of the pivotal technological and bioinformatic advancements that have propelled metabolomics to the forefront of exercise physiology research. Metabolomics offers a unique 'fingerprint' of cellular activity, offering a broader spectrum than traditional single-metabolite assays. Techniques, including mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, have significantly improved the speed and sensitivity of metabolite analysis. Nonetheless, challenges persist, including study design and data interpretation issues. This review aims to serve as a guide for exercise physiologists to facilitate better research design, data analysis and interpretation within metabolomics. The potential of metabolomics in bridging the gap between genotype and phenotype is emphasised, underscoring the critical importance of careful study design and the selection of appropriate metabolomics techniques. Furthermore, the paper highlights the need to deeply understand the broader scientific context to discern meaningful metabolic changes. The emerging field of fluxomics, which seeks to quantify metabolic reaction rates, is also introduced as a promising avenue for future research.

The plague, the skill-premium, and the road to modern economic growth

Abstract When bubonic plague arrived in Britain in the mid-14th century, it caused dramatic economic and structural change. Within 50 years, the skill-premium was reduced by half, and another 50 years on, agriculture’s share of the labor force had declined by more than 20 percentage points. This paper develops a two-sector pre-industrial growth model and draws on recent data sources covering Late Medieval and Early Modern Britain to explain these and the ensuing developments. Our main findings are that the skill-premium’s decline was related to the guild and apprenticeship system and that it and the other post-Plague adjustments were crucial determinants of the British trajectory toward industrialization. In particular, prior sectoral transformation and the skill-premium’s determination were important when the Early Modern population boom (1525–1654) threatened to reverse the adjustments caused by the Plague.

The Significance and Possible Shortcomings of African Philosophy: A Look at Ekwuru, Emeka George Afrizealotism

African philosophy’s and its attendant development in the twentieth century is relatively recent, traceable to some seminal texts, and ancient, drawing on cultural forms that stretch back in time and space. Since its inception in the mid-20th century, African Philosophy has become a full-fledged academic discipline. Many readers and anthologies, introductions, and other pedagogical publications have been published, along with a great number of texts striving to give an overview of the field, often in comparison with Western philosophy or with philosophies from other regions of the world. However, the discipline and pursuit is bedevilled with issue around relevance as many school of thought and scholars have not question its existence but also what its stand to achieve. Hence, in this paper, we will be examining the significance of African philosophy, and highlighting its possible shortcomings. The paper will also recommend possible solutions to the decline of African philosophy.

Establishing Border Commissariats on the Russian-Chinese Border in the 2<sup>nd</sup> Half of the 19<sup>th</sup> – Early 20<sup>th</sup> Centuries

In the mid-19th century, the Russian government started pushing forward the implementation of a policy to move its population eastward. This was done to strengthen the country’s position in the East and required coordination with China to establish state borders. The legal formalization of the boundaries resulted in the development of new mechanisms of border diplomacy for further interaction between both countries. However, there has been relatively little study of the approaches and tools used in Russian-Chinese diplomacy during this time. This article summarizes the history of establishing border commissariats on the Russian-Chinese border in the 2nd half of the 19th – early 20th century. The study is carried out using the narrative, structural, and functional method, the method of variance, and normative comparison. As a result, it finds out that in the 2nd half of the 19th century, diplomatic functions were shared between the Governor-General, border commissars, and diplomatic officials reporting to the Governor-General. The border commissar was a civil position of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and was represented by a civilian with the rank of state adviser. The Commissioner’s powers were subordinated to and supervised by the Far East region's Governor-General (military position), who overlooked diplomatic relations. Four border commissariats were set up in the Transbaikal, Amour, South Ussuri and Uryankhay regions. The author concludes that there was no unified system of border commissariats. Although the commissars shared professional duties, they acted independently and dealt with foreign policy issues specific to their region. Overall, the commissars' activities helped maintain socio-political stability in the Eastern border regions of the Russian Empire.

Foreign policy towards civilization megatrends in world politics

The aim of this article is to indicate and analyze three selected civilization and culture megatrends that can be observed in the contemporary global policy which are important not only to a state’s foreign policy, but also to identities of particular states. Such analyses are preceded by: firstly, an indication of continuity and change of a state’s foreign policy over centuries, and secondly, an attempt at defining megatrends and selecting a few key megatrends outside the civilization and culture area (such an area essentially refers to norms, values and ideas and accompanying social practices). The following research questions were posed: What is the continuity and changeability of foreign policy since the mid-17th century? What are megatrends? How selected megatrends affect and modify the international environment.

Hydroxyhexylitaconic acids as potent IMP-type metallo-β-lactamase inhibitors for controlling carbapenem resistance in Enterobacterales.

Metallo-β-lactamases (MBLs) represent one of the main causes of carbapenem resistance in the order Enterobacterales. To combat MBL-producing carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales, the development of MBL inhibitors can restore carbapenem efficacy for such resistant bacteria. Microbial natural products are a promising source of attractive seed compounds for the development of antimicrobial agents. Here, we report that hydroxyhexylitaconic acids (HHIAs) produced by a member of the genus Aspergillus can suppress carbapenem resistance conferred by MBLs, particularly IMP (imipenemase)-type MBLs. HHIAs were found to be competitive inhibitors with micromolar orders of magnitude against IMP-1 and showed weak inhibitory activity toward VIM-2, while no inhibitory activity against NDM-1 was observed despite the high dosage. The elongated methylene chains of HHIAs seem to play a crucial role in exerting inhibitory activity because itaconic acid, a structural analog without long methylene chains, did not show inhibitory activity against IMP-1. The addition of HHIAs restored meropenem and imipenem efficacy to satisfactory clinical levels against IMP-type MBL-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae clinical isolates. Unlike EDTA and Aspergillomarasmine A, HHIAs did not cause the loss of zinc ions from the active site, resulting in the structural instability of MBLs. X-ray crystallography and in silico docking simulation analyses revealed that two neighboring carboxylates of HHIAs coordinated with two zinc ions in the active sites of VIM-2 and IMP-1, which formed a key interaction observed in MBL inhibitors. Our results indicated that HHIAs are promising for initiating the design of potent inhibitors of IMP-type MBLs.IMPORTANCEThe number and type of metallo-β-lactamase (MΒL) are increasing over time. Carbapenem resistance conferred by MΒL is a significant threat to our antibiotic regimen, and the development of MΒL inhibitors is urgently required to restore carbapenem efficacy. Microbial natural products have served as important sources for developing antimicrobial agents targeting pathogenic bacteria since the discovery of antibiotics in the mid-20th century. MΒL inhibitors derived from microbial natural products are still rare compared to those derived from chemical compound libraries. Hydroxyhexylitaconic acids (HHIAs) produced by members of the genus Aspergillus have potent inhibitory activity against clinically relevant IMP-type MBL. HHIAs may be good lead compounds for the development of MBL inhibitors applicable for controlling carbapenem resistance in IMP-type MBL-producing Enterobacterales.

US-Trained Chinese (Returned) Scientific Diaspora, the Transformation of Modern China, and the Evolution of Sino-American Relations from the Mid-19th Century to the Present

US-Trained Chinese (Returned) Scientific Diaspora, the Transformation of Modern China, and the Evolution of Sino-American Relations from the Mid-19th Century to the Present

Reconstructing the unknown: an integrated and multisource description of Albanian landscape transformations since the 1850s

This paper aims to reconstruct the Albanian rural landscape through qualitative, diachronic, and multisource interpretations from the mid-19th century until 2022. For the first time, the data suitable for studying and describing landscape changes have been outlined to understand them over time, combining literature, historical maps, paintings, photo collections, movies, land art, and statistical dataset interpretations. By describing the changes in the Albanian landscape and interpretation of agricultural statistics, the research has confirmed the land-use dynamicity of its rural landscape. These considerations call for a more contemporary approach to landscape planning, stressing the need for the State Party to sign the Council of Europe Landscape Convention. In addition, strategies and actions should valorise both the ordinary landscape and the community involvement in its proactive management.

What are we measuring in international assessments? Learning? Probably. Intelligence? Not likely

In the current manuscript, we provide a brief look into the evolution of intelligence testing, tracing its origins and methodologies from the mid-19th century. We then critically examine contemporary research that misinterprets international assessment data, which measures differences in learning, as proxies for differences in intelligence. The reviewed research perpetuates racial hierarchies and leans toward a deterministic view of intelligence, sometimes with eugenicist undertones. We further emphasize the methodological shortcomings of such research, cautioning against the inappropriate interpretations of international assessment data. We underscore that these assessments, while valuable in their intended context, are not validated measures of intelligence or cognitive ability and should not be misconstrued as such. Further, these scores should not be misinterpreted as an indication of what students are capable of learning. Finally, we show several examples of why international assessment results are not well-suited as proxies of intelligence, but, rather, how they might tap into learning.

Experimental Evidences on Magnetism-Covalent Bonding Interplay in Structural Properties of Solids and during Chemisorption.

Valence electrons are one of the main players in solid catalysts and in catalytic reactions, since they are involved in several correlated phenomena like chemical bonding, magnetism, chemisorption, and bond activation. This is particularly true in the case of solid catalysts containing d-transition metals, which exhibit a wide range of magnetic phenomena, from paramagnetism to collective behaviour. Indeed, the electrons of the outer d-shells are, on one hand, involved in the formation of bonds within the structure of a catalyst and on its surface, and, on the other, they are accountable for the magnetic properties of the material. For this reason, the relationship between magnetism and heterogeneous catalysis has been a source of great interest since the mid-20th century. The subject has gained a lot of attention in the last decade, thanks to the orbital engineering of quantum spin-exchange interactions and to the widespread application of external magnetic fields as boosting tools in several catalytic reactions. The topic is discussed here through experimental examples and evidences of the interplay between magnetism and covalent bonding in the structure of solids and during the chemisorption process. Covalent bonding is discussed since it represents one of the strongest contributions to bonds encountered in materials.

Italian Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders.

Drinking alcohol during pregnancy can cause congenital disabilities. J. Roquette, P. Lemoine and K.L. Jones were the first to describe these effects. In 1973, Jones and Smith coined the term Fetal Alcohol Syndrome to describe children with facial anomalies, poor growth, and learning difficulties. The caution against drinking during pregnancy has existed for centuries, including in The Bible (Judges 13:3-4). Maternal alcohol consumption is linked to congenital disabilities. To ensure safety, it is advised to abstain from alcohol during pregnancy. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) was observed in paintings from the mid-19th century when artists began depicting moments and characters from everyday life. In 2005-2006, Italy conducted a groundbreaking study on FASD, the first in Europe. The study resulted in valuable research on FASD, contributing to prevention efforts. Unfortunately, diagnosing FASD remains a challenge in Italy. Early diagnosis and treatment are critical, and increasing the number of authorized centers to diagnose FASD is necessary to improve care. Educating ourselves about FASD is the key to creating a world where affected children receive the care they need. These guidelines include nine works dealing with all FASD aspects such as prevention, the effects on cognition, the epidemiology, the diagnostic criteria, the clinical aspects, the general effects on the body, the available treatments and the methods of detecting alcohol abuse in pregnant women.

Information, Coding, and Biological Function: The Dynamics of Life.

In the mid-20th century, two new scientific disciplines emerged forcefully: molecular biology and information-communication theory. At the beginning, cross-fertilization was so deep that the term genetic code was universally accepted for describing the meaning of triplets of mRNA (codons) as amino acids. However, today, such synergy has not taken advantage of the vertiginous advances in the two disciplines and presents more challenges than answers. These challenges not only are of great theoretical relevance but also represent unavoidable milestones for next-generation biology: from personalized genetic therapy and diagnosis to Artificial Life to the production of biologically active proteins. Moreover, the matter is intimately connected to a paradigm shift needed in theoretical biology, pioneered a long time ago, that requires combined contributions from disciplines well beyond the biological realm. The use of information as a conceptual metaphor needs to be turned into quantitative and predictive models that can be tested empirically and integrated in a unified view. Successfully achieving these tasks requires a wide multidisciplinary approach, including Artificial Life researchers, to address such an endeavour.

Comparison of the timing of spring phenological events between phenological garden trees and wild populations

Abstract Phenological research is engaged in monitoring the influence of climate change on the natural environment. The International Phenological Gardens (IPG) network provides a valuable dataset of standardized tree phenology records dating back to the mid-20th century. To make best use of this actively growing record, it is important to investigate how network data can be applied to predict the timing of phenological events in natural populations. This study compared clonally propagated IPG downy birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) and hazel (Corylus avellana L.) specimens of central European provenance to nearby wild populations at the western-most margin of the IPG network, in the south-west of Ireland. In addition to monitoring by trained scientists, observations by citizen scientists were included. The order of the timing of phenological events among sites was consistent across 2 years, confirming reproducibility of the results. IPG trees had the earliest B. pubescens leaf unfolding and C. avellana flowering dates of the sites studied. In addition, leaf unfolding occurred later in the wild populations than expected from the temperature responses of the B. pubescens and C. avellana IPG clones. Natural variation in phenology also exceeded the historical change observed at the IPG site, suggesting a potential genetic basis for climate adaptation. Trunk circumference, reflecting the age-dependent increase in tree size, was found to influence C. avellana phenology, with earlier timing of phenological events in larger trees. This finding highlights tree size as an important consideration in the management of phenological gardens and tree phenology research in general.

Shariʿa and Governance in Ottoman Egypt: The Waqf Controversy in the Mid-Sixteenth Century

AbstractIn the mid-16th century, the Ottoman government sought to expand its tax revenue from Egypt through a controversial initiative to levy taxes on endowments (waqf). The controversy produced a diverse range of responses from Ottoman scholar-bureaucrats, such as Ebussuud Efendi, who supported the initiative; Egyptian scholars, including Ibn Nujaym and al-Ghayti, who opposed it; and the Ottoman governor, who worked to resolve it. Despite the opposing positions of the diverse actors, shariʿa served as the common medium for the articulation and negotiation of their opinions and helped produce a compromise that became foundational for the Ottoman tax regime in Egypt. In this episode, shariʿa constituted an instrument of governance. Such a role for shariʿa differs from its conception as an autonomous field of scholarly interpretation, or the understanding of it as an inclusive normative system encompassing rules emerging from both the interpretative activities of scholars and the definitive edicts and orders of rulers. Shariʿa did not constitute the endpoint of rulemaking; rather, it provided the shared language of terms and concepts through which different actors participated in the process of formulating rules.