Microstructure Of Rods Research Articles

Breaking the strength-conductivity paradigm in hypoeutectic Al–Si alloy via annealing-induced Si nanoprecipitation

Hypoeutectic Al–Si alloys are increasingly recognized as promising materials for aluminum conductor cables owing to their remarkable combination of high strength and castability. However, the widespread industrial application of these alloys is limited by their moderate electrical conductivities (ECs). In this study, we explored the effects of direct annealing on the EC, mechanical properties, and microstructure of AA4043 rods fabricated via Properzi continuous casting. The AA4043 rods were annealed at different temperatures (200, 250, 300, and 350 °C) for 4 and 24 h. Direct annealing resulted in a significant improvement in the EC of the rods, with all samples exhibiting an EC improvement from 50 to 58% IACS. However, the mechanical strength of the rods was considerably reduced. The sample annealed at 250 °C for 4 h exhibited the best combination of EC (58.8% IACS), microhardness (43 HV), and ultimate tensile strength (141 MPa) among all the as-prepared samples. The sample annealed at 350 °C for 24 h showed the lowest microhardness (31.8 HV) and ultimate tensile strength (113 MPa), with EC of 58.05% IACS. Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) results revealed retained fibrous grains structure with partial recrystallization at a lower annealing temperature of 250 °C, whereas a higher annealing temperature of 350 °C resulted in complete recrystallization leading to coarse equiaxed grains. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis revealed the formation of nano-Si precipitates in the annealed samples. To understand the diverse contributions of the resistivity mechanisms and microstructural characteristics to EC improvement, a constitutive resistivity model was employed. These findings offer valuable insights into improving the EC and maintaining a delicate balance between the EC and strength of novel Al–Si conductor alloys.

Individual trabecula segmentation validation in first- and second-generation high-resolution peripheral computed tomography compared to micro-computed tomography in the distal radius and tibia.

High-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography (HR-pQCT) has been used for in vivo 3D visualization of trabecular microstructure. Second-generation HR-pQCT (HR-pQCT II) has been shown to have good agreement with first generation HR-pQCT (HR-pQCT I). Advanced Individual Trabecula Segmentation (ITS) decomposes the trabecula network into individual plates and rods. ITS based on HR-pQCT I showed a strong correlation to ITS based on micro-computed tomography (μCT) and identified trabecular changes in metabolic bone diseases. ITS based on HR-pQCT II has new potential because of the enhanced resolution but has yet to be validated. The objective of this study was to assess the agreement between ITS based on HR-pQCT I, HR-pQCT II, and μCT to assess the capability of ITS on HR-pQCT images as a tool for studying bone structure. Freshly frozen tibia and radius bones were scanned in the distal region using HR-pQCT I at 82μm, HR-pQCT II at 60.7μm, and μCT at 37μm. Images were registered, binarized, and ITS analysis was performed. Bone volume fraction (pBV/TV, rBV/TV), number density (pTb.N, rTb.N), thickness (pTb.Th, rTb.Th), and plate-to-rod (PR) ratio (pBV/rBV) of trabecular plates and rods were obtained. Paired Student's t-tests with post hoc Bonferroni analysis were used to examine the differences. Linear regression was used to determine the correlation coefficient. The HR-pQCT I parameters were different from the μCT measurements. The HR-pQCT II parameters were different from the μCT measurements except for rTb.N, and the HR-pQCT I parameters were different from the HR-pQCT II measurements except for pTb.Th. The strong correlation between HR-pQCT II and μCT microstructural analysis (R2 = 0.55-0.94) suggests that HR-pQCT II can be used to assess changes in plate and rod microstructure and that values from HR-pQCT I can be corrected.

A three-dimensional compression-torsion metamaterial based on the three-period minimum surface theory

This paper proposes a novel design for a three-dimensional compression-torsion mechanical metamaterial based on the three-period minimal surface (TPMS) theory. Unlike the conventional approach of utilizing chiral or diagonal rod structures to achieve compressive-torsional properties in metamaterials, this paper employs a two-dimensional level of TPMS theory and the synergistic effect of a re-entrant structure to achieve compressive-torsional properties. Theoretical, experimental, and numerical methods were employed to investigate the deformation characteristics and mechanical properties of the proposed structure. The paper investigates the impact of the periodic value of the TPMS on the torsion direction, as well as the influence of unit cell radius r on the deformation characteristics, torsion angle, and Poisson's ratio of the lattice structure. The length of radius r can be appropriately selected to control the torsion angle and negative Poisson's ratio (NPR) effect of the structure. Furthermore, by adjusting the period values of the TPMS, the torsion direction of the structure can be controlled. Finally, the torsion angle, Poisson's ratio, stiffness and specific energy absorption (SEA) were compared with the structure with a diagonal rod microstructure (SDRM). The findings indicate that the proposed structure exhibits superior torsion performance and NPR effect compared to the previously proposed three-dimensional compression-torsion material. This design concept has significant implications for the development of smart devices, aerospace engineering, and conservation engineering applications.

Friction extrusion of AZ91/bioactive glass gradient composite

The effect of the pre-friction extrusion microstructure of AZ91 billet on the microstructure, mechanical properties, and corrosion resistance of AZ91-bioactive glass surface composite rods was investigated. The results show that friction extrusion on AZ91 alloy billet with cast microstructure results in agglomerated bioactive glass particles in the composite rod microstructure. Compared to as-cast AZ91 alloy, friction extrusion on AZ91 alloy billet with cast microstructure results in 93% more corrosion resistance. Also, friction extrusion on AZ91 alloy billet with extruded microstructure leads to a gradient AZ91-bioactive glass composite rod with ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, and corrosion resistance of 9, 2, and 74% higher than AZ91 alloy rods, respectively.

Influence of the Component Ratio in the Ti–B System on the Structure and Properties of Materials Fabricated by SHS Extrusion

We studied how the ratio of precursor titanium and boron powders influenced the combustion temperature and combustion velocity in the high-temperature self-propagating synthesis (SHS) mode, and the microstructure, phase composition, and mechanophysical properties of rods fabricated by SHS extrusion. The subject matters of the study were materials for which the as-batch phase compositions of products were TiB–(20–40) wt % Ti. The formation of boron solid solution in titanium was considered. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), and mechanical measurements implied the texture of the prepared materials (TiB whiskers were aligned in the direction in which the external pressure was applied). In all of the composites studied, the conductivity was close to the conductivity of undoped titanium; the electrical resistance increased slightly in response to increasing boron weight fraction. The three-point bending strength of the material increased by a factor of 1.7 at most as the weight fraction of boron solid solution in titanium increased from 20 to 40 wt %.

Drawing fracture behavior and mechanism analysis of ER50-6G welding wire steel

In this paper, we investigated the drawing fracture behavior of ER50-6G welding wire steel and analyzed the factors affecting the fracture, such as continuous casting slag and inclusion, billet structure segregation, Ti inclusion, surface defect inheritance, metallographic structure type, fracture morphology, and so on. OLYMPUS GX53 optical microscope was used to observe and analyze the macrostructure of the cross-section and longitudinal section of the continuous casting billet and the original quality state of the wire rod surface. The continuous cooling transformation curve (CCT curve) of the steel was measured using a DIL805A thermal dilatometer and a Gleeble-3500 thermal simulation test machine. The microstructures of the non-fracture area and drawing fracture of wire rod samples were observed through a ZEISS-ULTRA scanning electron microscope. The results show that the austenite starting transformation temperature (Ac1) and the austenite finishing transformation temperature (Ac3) of ER50-6G welding wire steel are 732 °C and 865 °C, respectively. Under the actual cooling conditions of online production, the strip structure is composed of ferrite (F), pearlite (P), and a small amount of bainite (B). There is a small amount of slag and inclusion in the continuous casting billet; in addition, Al2O3 inclusions and TiC (or Ti(C,N)) inclusions can be observed in the wire rod. The scratch depth of the wire rod surface is 24∼62 μm and the width is 31∼50 μm. With the increase in drawing cumulative deformation, the Al2O3 and TiC (or Ti(C,N)) inclusions that are not easy to deform lead to drawing fracture and brittle fracture. In addition, a small amount of bainite in the wire rod microstructure causes the fracture of the wire with a fine diameter, whereas, the limited-depth scratches on the steel surface do not have an obvious effect on the drawing fracture.

Application of the Phase Transformation Model for the Design of the Cooling Conditions in Stelmor Process to Obtain a Favorable Multiphase Microstructure of Wire Rod for Cold Heading Applications

The phase transformation model is the subject of this article capable of evaluating the hardenability of various bainitic steels. The objective is to provide a tool, which will help to design the chemical composition of steels with enhanced bainitic hardenability. Three general indexes, which are based on the relation between bainite volume fraction and cooling rate, and which characterize the hardenability, are proposed. Calculations of these hardenability indexes are presented for low‐carbon steels with different chemical compositions. Correlation between the chemistry and the hardenability factors is evaluated. Following this, an industrial process of cooling of wire rods is simulated for the steel with hardenability indexes adjusted to the cooling capabilities of Stelmor system. The cooling conditions, which give a favorable multiphase microstructure of wire rod for cold heading applications, are designed.

Early zoledronate treatment inhibits subchondral bone microstructural changes in skeletally-mature, ACL-transected canine knees.

Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tear leads to post-traumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA), a significant clinical burden worldwide that currently has no cure. Recent studies suggest a role of subchondral bone adaptations in the development of PTOA. Particularly, microstructural changes in the rod-and-plate microstructure of subchondral bone may precede and contribute to OA progression. In this study, we quantified microstructural changes in subchondral trabecular rods and plates after ACL-transection for the first time in the well-established preclinical canine model of PTOA and investigated the therapeutic potentials of a bisphosphonate (zoledronate) and NSAID treatment (meloxicam). Unilateral hindlimb ACL transection was performed on skeletally-mature (2-year-old, N = 20) and juvenile (10-month-old, N = 20) male beagles. Animals were assigned to 4 groups (N = 5): ACLT, un-operated control, ACLT with zoledronate, and ACLT with meloxicam treatment. Subchondral bone microstructure was evaluated by micro-computed tomography and cartilage integrity was evaluated histologically. We found that ACL-induced subchondral bone changes depended on skeletal maturity of animals. In mature animals, significant loss of trabecular plates that resulted in reduced PR ratio occurred at Month 1 and persisted until Month 8. Zoledronate treatment prevented trabecular plate loss while meloxicam treatment did not. Whether cartilage degeneration is also attenuated warrants further investigation. In juvenile animals that have not reached skeletal maturity, transient changes in trabecular plate and rod microstructure occurred at Month 3 but not Month 9. Neither zoledronate nor meloxicam treatment attenuated bone microstructural changes or cartilage damages. Findings from this study suggest that early inhibition of bone resorption by bisphosphonate after injury may be a promising therapeutic approach to prevent alterations in subchondral bone microstructure associated with PTOA. Our results further demonstrate that pathogenesis of PTOA may differ between adolescent and adult patients and therefore require distinct management strategies.

Influence of Microstructure on the Mechanical and Corrosion Response of a Friction Stir-Extruded WE43 Magnesium Rod

Friction stir extrusion (FSE) was used with WE43 Mg to create a rod with a hybrid microstructure. The rod’s electrochemical corrosion response was characterized in Hank’s balanced salt solution at 37 ± 1 °C. The rod showed refined grains near the edge, while coarse grains were observed at the rod center. A larger fraction of precipitates was observed near the edge possibly hindering grain growth. The refined grains and the presence of a larger fraction of precipitates in the edge regions resulted in higher hardness owing to a confluence of precipitate hardening and solid–solution strengthening. Texture analysis of the rod cross-section exhibited a basal texture, perpendicular to the extrusion direction and populating the rod’s outer surface. In compression, the rod showed a near-base material yield strength (225.6 MPa) and a good combination of compressive strength (357.5 MPa) and ductility (~17.7%). The rod’s electrochemical corrosion response was sensitive to variations in the grain size, texture, and precipitate distribution between the rod core and edge regions. Removal of the edge region resulted in the formation of a more stable and protective film with an increase in the immersion period. The results from the study establish the ability of the FSE process to tailor the rod microstructure thereby influencing the mechanical properties and corrosion rate of Mg alloy.

Effect of Magnesium Powder Application on the Microstructure and Properties of Rods Extruded by the Forward-Backward Rotating Die Extrusion Method.

The effects of severe plastic deformation (SPD) with a forward-backward rotating die (KOBO extrusion) on pure magnesium, in the form of cold-compacted powder, sintered powder, or cast ingots as reference, were examined. This method is known to reinforce metals, but the role of the initial form of magnesium applied in the fabrication of metal-based rods, as well as related phenomena, has not been characterized until now. The problem is important in the potential processing of commercial metal powders, the recycling of metal shavings, and the fabrication of metal matrix composites with discontinuous reinforcing phases. In the presented experiments, rods of 8 mm in diameter and 400 mm in length were obtained, and the structural effects induced by KOBO that occurred on a macro- and microscale on the surface and cross sections were characterized. Changes in the size and orientation of α-Mg crystallites were determined by XRD. The porosity, hardness, tensile strength, and compressive strength were measured, and the mechanisms of decohesion dependent on starting metal form were analyzed. After KOBO extrusion, significant differences were observed in the microstructure and properties between the materials derived from cold-compacted powder, sintered powder, and reference cast magnesium. Due to the application of KOBO, apart from α-Mg grain refinement, the MgO derived from the initial powder’s surface was refined to fine regular particles surrounded by magnesium. Their bands curved in the perpendicular plane and were oriented with the extrusion direction of the formed network, which augmented some mechanical properties and changed the decohesion mechanism. The conducted experiments revealed that before extrusion by KOBO, the magnesium powder required sintering under pressure.

The Effect of Cold Swaging of Tungsten Heavy Alloy with the Composition W91-6Ni-3Co on the Mechanical Properties

The paper presents the results of studies on the effects of heat treatment and cold-work parameters on the mechanical properties and microstructure of the tungsten heavy alloy (WHA) with the composition W91-6Ni-3Co. Tungsten heavy alloy (WHA) is used in conditions where strength, high density, and weight are required. The material for testing as rod-shaped samples was produced by the method of powder metallurgy and sintering with the participation of the liquid phase and then subjected to heat treatment and cold swaging. The study compares the effect of degree deformation on the strength, hardness, microhardness, and microstructure of WHA rods. The conducted tests showed that heat treatment and cold-work allowed to gradually increase the strength parameters, i.e., tensile strength , yield strength , elongation ε, hardness, and microhardness. These processes made it possible to increase the tensile strength by over 800 MPa (from the initial 600 MPa after sintering to the final value of over 1470 MPa after heat treatment with cold swaging deformation with reduction of 30%) and the hardness from 32 to 46 HRC.

Study on the Effect and Mechanism of Alkali–Silica Reaction Expansion in Glass Concrete

The suppression of ASR expansion hazards of glass concrete has always been a key and hot issue in the research of glass concrete. According to the ASTM C1260-14 fast mortar rod method, glass sand and glass powder act as fine aggregate and auxiliary cementing material, respectively. The changes in expansion rate with different amounts of glass sand content and different particle sizes of glass powder in mortar rods were compared, and the effects of glass sand content and the glass powder particle size on the expansion of ASR were analyzed. SEM was used to compare and analyze the microstructure of mortar rods to explore the mechanism of ASR expansion of glass concrete, and the results showed that the addition of glass powder had a certain inhibitory effect on ASR expansion. The larger the particle size of glass powder was, the better the inhibition effect on ASR expansion and the longer its duration. Compared with the three groups of experiments of 0–13 μm, 13–38 μm, and 38–75 μm, it was found that the influence of the glass powder particle size on the expansion of ASR was weaker than that of dosage. The inhibitory effect of glass powder on ASR expansion is related to the fact that glass powder is more involved in pozzolanic reaction in the early hydration process.

Regular Near-Surface Rod Microstructures and the Generation of Plasmon-Resonance for Detecting Mid-IR Radiation

Regular Near-Surface Rod Microstructures and the Generation of Plasmon-Resonance for Detecting Mid-IR Radiation

To the Question of the Manufacturing Ability a Contact Wire by Continuous Casting Rod

The article presents the results of pilot-industrial experiments in the field of manufacturing technology of contact wire made of Cu-Sn alloys. Cast rods with a diameter of 20 mm, made of CuSn0.04, CuSn0.1, CuSn0.2, CuSn0.3, CuSn0.4 alloys, were obtained in a continuous casting plant on an Upcast system. Cast rods were deformed using a Conform technology, and extruded billets with a diameter of 18 and 20 mm were produced, which were subsequently drawn on a shaped contact wire with a cross section of 100 mm2. Cast rods macrostructure and microstructure were studied. The macrostructure quantitative assessment of samples was studied in a cross and longitudinal section. A plot of the effect of the tin content in the alloy on the average grain area in cross section is obtained. An increase in the tin content in the alloy leads to a decrease in the average grain area. An analysis of the rod microstructure in a cross section showed that the structure is a grain of an α-solid solution of tin in copper, and the grain boundaries are thin and clean. After deformation by Conform technology a uniform fine-grained structure is ensured. The effect of the tin content in the alloy on the Brinell hardness of cast billets, made by Conform technology, is determined. An increase in the tin content in the alloy leads to an increase in the hardness of both cast and deformed billets. The microstructure analysis of the contact wire in the cross section is carried out. The mechanical and electrical properties of the contact wire with a cross section of 100 mm2 are determined. An analysis of the results showed when the tin content in the alloy is up to 0.4 wt. %, the required level of mechanical and electrical properties of the contact wire is not provided. It may be necessary to change the size of the initial billet before drawing or to increase the tin content in the alloy more than 0.4 wt. %.

Rare earth lanthanum based aerogels with reduced chlorine ions by a modified epoxide gelation method

Rare earth lanthanum based aerogels with reduced chlorine ions were produced by a modified sol–gel process. In the process, the La3+ precursor was designed to coordinate acetylacetone to form a La-complex. Ethanediamine was added in sol solution to form hydrochloride precipitates that were filtered in the following step. After supercritical drying, La-aerogel monoliths with lamella and rod microstructure were achieved. The Ion Chromatography showed that the chlorine within the aerogel synthesized by an optimized recipe reduced to as low as 0.371 wt%, in compared to the well-established method (3.909 wt%). The sol–gel mechanism was explored in detail.

Role of Solid–Solid Interfacial Energy Anisotropy in the Formation of Broken Lamellar Structures in Eutectic Systems

Eutectic solidification gives rise to a wide range of microstructures. A commonly observed morphology is the periodic arrangement of lamellar plates with well-defined orientations of the solid–solid interface in a given eutectic grain. It is typically believed that this form of morphology develops due to the presence of solid–solid interfacial energy anisotropy. In this paper, we provide evidence using phase-field simulations where our focus is on alloys where the minority phase fraction is low. Our aim is to establish the role of solid–solid interfacial energy anisotropy in the stabilization of broken lamellar structures in such systems in contrast to the formation of a rod microstructure. In this regard, we conduct phase-field simulations for different strengths of anisotropy in both constrained and extended settings, using which we clarify the mechanisms by which a lamellar arrangement gets stabilized in the presence of anisotropy in the solid–solid interfacial energy.

Structural characteristics and ablative behavior of C/C–ZrC–SiC composites reinforced with “Z-pins like” Zr–Si–B–C multiphase ceramic rods

In order to improve the ablation and oxidation resistance of C/C–ZrC–SiC composites in wide temperature domain, “Z-pins like” Zr–Si–B–C multiphase ceramic rods are prepared in the matrix. The influence of different sintering temperatures on the microstructure of ceramic rods and the ablative behavior of heterogeneous composites are studied. The results showed that the ZrB2 and SiC phases are formed in the sintered matrix, and the increase of sintering temperature is beneficial to improve the density of the ceramic rods. The ablation properties of samples have been greatly improved. The mass and linear ablation rate are 0.8 mg/s and 3.85 μm/s, respectively, at an ablation temperature of 3000 °C and an ablation time of 60 s. After ablation, the matrix surface is covered with SiO2 and ZrO2 mixed oxide films. This is due to the preferential oxidation of “Z-pins like” Zr–Si–B–C multiphase ceramic rods in the ablation process, and B2O3 melt, SiO2 melt, borosilicate glass, ZrSiO4 melt and ZrO2 oxide film can be generated successively from the low-temperature segment to the ultra-high temperature segment. These oxidation products can be used as compensation oxide melts for the healing of cracks and holes on the matrix surface in different temperature ranges and effectively prevent the external heat from spreading into the matrix. Therefore, C/C–ZrC–SiC composites with “Z-pins like” Zr–Si–B–C multiphase ceramic rods achieve ablation resistance in wide temperature domain.

Long-term service evaluation of a pultruded carbon/glass hybrid rod exposed to elevated temperature, hydraulic pressure and fatigue load coupling

In the present paper, a pultruded glass fiber shell (GFS) and carbon fiber core (CFC) hybrid rod (HFRP) with the diameter of 19 mm was exposed in an underground oil well. The exposure environment of elevated temperature (T), hydraulic pressure (P) and fatigue load (L) coupling was realized, including two exposure conditions, T = 25 °C, P = 0.5 MPa, Lmax = 70 kN and T = 90 °C, P = 18 MPa, Lmax = 50 kN. The long-term evaluation of mechanical, thermal properties and microstructure of HFRP rods was conducted to reveal the evolution mechanism during exposure. It can be observed that the short beam shear strength and interface shear strength of HFRP rods decreased obviously with the exposure time. Higher exposed temperature and hydraulic pressure aggravated the degradation through accelerating the diffusion of water molecule into HFRP rods. In contrast, higher fatigue stress level played an insignificant effect owing to the low difference of fatigue stress level. During exposure, the diffusion of water molecule caused the hydrolysis and plasticizing of resin and increased the pore volume content (~3%) in the rod. Plenty of bound water (>90%) formed and weaken the Van der Waals force and hydrogen bond between fiber and resin, finally leading to debonding of fiber/resin interface, especially for the higher exposed temperature and hydraulic pressure. The fatigue tests of HFRP rods immersed at 60 °C/20 MPa for one year in the laboratory were conducted to simulate the fatigue behavior exposed in the underground oil well. Furthermore, the residual fatigue life of HFRP rods was predicted to be more than 15.55 years. When the designed fatigue life of HFRP rods in actual exposure was 10 years, the maximum applied fatigue load was predicted to be 144.7 kN.

Improvement of the Method for the High-Carbon Wire Rod Pearlite Grain Grade Identification

The main characteristics of metal long products quality include mechanical properties, depending on the microstructure state. The key indicator for evaluation the micro-structure of high carbon steel can be considered the 1st grain grade lamellar pearlite Bfp. For the currently used pearlite dispersion method, according to GOST 8233-56, it is characterized by the subjectivity of the view fields choice for the microstructure evaluation, that reduces the quality of the obtained results. The study purpose was to improve the method of high-carbon steel wire rod microstructure estimation, to reduce the error magnitude in determining the 1st grain grade lamellar pearlite. The experiments were carried out on samples of high-carbon steel wire rod with a carbon content of 0,58 – 0,77 %. The pearlite dispersion was evaluated in 27 view fields, located on mutually perpendicular diagonals of the sample cross section. The study results showed the possibility of reducing the error in determining the estimated value of the high-carbon steel wire rod microstructure pearlite dispersion. Microstructure evaluation in the five view fields should be carried out, taking into account the weight coefficients, determined by the ratio of the zones length, occupied by pearlite with a certain percentage of the 1st grade grain pearlite to the wire rod radius. The proposed method of the microstructure evaluation increases assessment accuracy, without complication of its implementation process.

Discrete element models of fracture in tooth enamel: Failure mode competition and statistical effects

Capturing how cracks initiate and propagate in tooth enamel is difficult because of the complex three-dimensional microstructure of this material. In this work we use the discrete element method (DEM) to model fracture in idealized enamel structures where the enamel rod microstructure is explicitly represented with DEM elements. The model captures the interactions of a propagating crack with the mineral rods and their interfaces, including crack deflection and penetration into the rods. We used this model to assess the effect of relative strength and stiffness between the rods and the interfaces, of the decussation angle, and of statistical distributions of defects in the mineral rods. We show that higher strength rods (smaller flaws) promote interface crack deflection and branching which increases toughness through spreading of an inelastic region. Stiffer rods increase the load carried by the rod, which ultimately decreases crack resistance. Statistical variations in rod strength were shown to have an overall negative impact on the average crack resistance. In particular, for high coefficients of variation we observed substantial nucleation of ‘daughter’ cracks far from the main crack, which steer the main crack along the weakest trajectories and decrease overall toughness. This model and results provide insights to better interpret fracture experiments in human or bovine enamel, as well as better guidelines for the design of synthetic dental and bioinspired materials.