Microchannel Plate Photomultiplier Research Articles

Effects of secondary electron emission yield properties on gain and timing performance of ALD-coated MCP

The technology of atomic layer deposition has been used to improve the lifetime of the microchannel plate-photomultiplier tube (MCP-PMT) effectively and makes MCP possible to choose to coat different potential emissive materials on the internal surface of the MCP channels in the future. However, it is still an open question to what extent the secondary electron emission (SEE) yield properties of the emissive materials influence the behavior of the ALD-coated MCP. In this work, the dependences of the gain and timing performance on the SEE yield properties were assessed by using the Monte Carlo and particle-in-cell methods. We established the three-dimensional MCP single channel model in Computer Simulation Technology (CST) Particle Studio. Three important secondary electron emissions, the backscattered, rediffused and true SEEs, were discussed numerically based on the probabilistic model. The secondary electron cascade processes in the MCP single channel were simulated. The simulation results indicate that the opportunities for improving the gain of the ALD-coated MCP by improving the SEE yields corresponding to the incident energies of 0 eV–100 eV. The backscattered and rediffused electrons are found to have strong effects on the gain and timing performance of the MCP. Although the higher the SEE yield the higher the MCP gain, the drawback is the extremely high SEE yield will make the MCP saturated prematurely and degrade the time resolution. The simulation results will be used to guide the design and selection of emissive material for ALD-coated MCP development.

Lead-free MCP to improve coincidence time resolution and reduce MCP direct interactions

Achieving direct imaging of the annihilation position of a positron on an event-by-event basis using an ultrafast detector would have a great impact on the field of nuclear medicine. Cherenkov emission is the most attractive physical phenomenon for realizing such an ultrafast timing performance. Moreover, a microchannel-plate photomultiplier tube (MCP-PMT) is one of the most promising photodetectors for fully exploiting the fast timing properties of Cherenkov emission owing to its excellent single photon time resolution of 25 ps full width at half maximum (FWHM). However, as the MCP structure generally contains a lead compound, the gamma rays frequently and directly interact with the MCP, resulting in the degradation of its timing performance and generation of undesirable side peaks in its coincidence timing histogram. To overcome this problem, we have developed a new MCP-PMT based on an MCP consisting of borosilicate glass, thus drastically reducing the probability of the photoelectric effect occurring in the MCP. To evaluate its insensitivity to gamma rays and its timing performance, a coincidence experiment was performed and showed that the probability of direct interactions was reduced by a factor of 3.4. Moreover, a coincidence time resolution of 35.4 ± 0.4 ps FWHM, which is equivalent to a position resolution of 5.31 mm, was obtained without any pulse height/area cut, improving to 28.7 ± 3.0 ps when selecting on the highest amplitude events by careful optimization of the voltage divider circuit of the new MCP-PMT. The timing performance of this new MCP-PMT presents an important step toward making direct imaging possible.

Design of Time-to-Digital Converters for Time-Over-Threshold Measurement in Picosecond Timing Detectors

In picosecond timing detectors, the time over threshold (TOT) of detector signals is normally required to be measured to enhance the front-edge timing precision. The extremely narrow pulsewidth of these detector signals has posed challenges to the design of time-to-digital converters (TDCs) based on field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) for TOT measurement. In this article, an FPGA-based tapped-delay-line (TDL)-type TDC is proposed to simultaneously measure the arrival time and TOT time of nuclear pulses. By propagating the hit signal along a single TDL, the proposed bubble-proof encoding scheme can extract the time information of two transitions of hit signal in one measurement. The minimum measurable TOT time is proved to be limited only by the electrical characteristics of low-voltage differential signaling (LVDS) receivers of FPGAs. Through the performance evaluation on the prototype with a Virtex Ultrascale + FPGA, where the minimum measurable TOT time can be as low as 370 ps, the rms precision reaches 3.0 ps for TOT time measurement. Given the pulsewidths ranging from 0.4 to 1.5 ns, the measured TOT time is highly consistent with the direct readout values from the oscilloscope in a wide temperature range. To apply the TDC into a microchannel plate photomultiplier tube (MCP-PMT)-based timing detector, the front-end electronics board with a dual-threshold TOT measurement is constructed. The joint beam test results show that the coincidence time resolution of two identical detector channels can be improved from 36.5 to 10.3 ps, which demonstrates the significance of TOT measurement to modern picosecond timing detectors.

Design of the barrel and endcap DIRC detectors for particle identification in PANDA

The PANDA experiment at the future Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research (FAIR) in Darmstadt/Germany aims to investigate fundamental questions of hadron physics. PANDA is designed as a fixed-target experiment for an antiproton beam with a momentum range of 1.5 GeV/[Formula: see text] to 15 GeV/[Formula: see text]. In order to obtain an excellent particle identification of pions and kaons, two independent DIRC detectors have been developed for two adjacent spatial regions. The Barrel DIRC covers polar angles from [Formula: see text]–[Formula: see text] and performs [Formula: see text] separation with [Formula: see text] or more for momenta from 0.5 to 3.5 GeV/[Formula: see text]. The novel Endcap Disc DIRC (EDD) detector will cover the forward polar angles between [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] and will provide a [Formula: see text] separation from 0.5 GeV/[Formula: see text] up to 4 GeV/[Formula: see text] with a separation power at least [Formula: see text]. The design of the Barrel DIRC is based on the successful BaBar DIRC and the SuperB FDIRC R&D with several improvements to optimize the performance for PANDA. Both PANDA DIRC detectors use synthetic fused silica as material for radiators and light guides and lifetime-enhance Microchannel Plate PMTs (MCP-PMTs) as sensors. The Barrel DIRC uses narrow bars as a radiator, a prism-shaped expansion volume and a complex multi-layer spherical lens as focusing system. The Cherenkov radiator for the EDD is a large, 2 cm thick fused silica plate that is divided into four identical quadrants. A combination of bars and cylindrical elements with aluminum coating focus the Cherenkov light on the MCP-PMTs with segmented anode plates. The technical design of the two DIRC detectors and the performance of prototypes, tested in a mixed hadron beam at CERN, will be discussed.

Design and first performance results of waveform sampling readout electronics for Large Area Picosecond Photodetector

Large Area Picosecond Photodetectors (LAPPD) are a new generation of microchannel plate photomultipliers being manufactured by Incom. These devices feature large sensitive area of 350 cm2, high quantum efficiency (∼ 20%), and tens of picosecond single photon timing resolution. LAPPDs use an anode structure with 28 striplines, allowing for spatial resolution of 1 ÷ 3 mm while minimizing the number of readout channels. In this report, we present our design of integrated readout electronics for the LAPPD . These electronics read out all 2×28 channels of a stripline-anode LAPPD . Waveform sampling at up to 5GSPS is performed by 8 DRS4 switched-capacitor array ASICs. All DRS4 channels are digitized in parallel with two 32-channel ADCs. An on-board FPGA coordinates digitization and readout of waveforms, and could further be expanded to include some waveform processing. Data packages built in the FPGA are sent to a data acquisition system (DAQ) via optical fiber, with a baseline Gigabit Ethernet interface implemented entirely on the FPGA . The electronics is designed to accommodate different triggering options: self-triggering using DRS4 transparent mode and external triggering, making event control very flexible. Further flexibility is enhanced with embedded software for an on-FPGA soft-core processor, as well as DAQ readout and control software. The device is plug and play with any existing IP network. An open-source ecosystem is being developed to provide full control of the device operation and an easy way to integrate it to any environment. In the report we describe the status of the electronics development, its firmware and readout software. Also the results of the first tests of the electronics with the LAPPD devices will be presented.

ATLAS Forward Proton Time-of-Flight Detector: LHC Run2 performance and experiences

The performance of the ATLAS Forward Proton Time-of-Flight (ToF) Cherenkov detector is studied using the ATLAS data collected in 2017 during the LHC Run2. The detailed analysis of the results, including detector efficiency and time resolution of the ToF detector, is discussed. The detector construction and its expected performance based on beam test results are briefly summarized first. Operational experiences are presented. They include problems due to attempts to operate Micro-Channel Plate Photomultiplier Tubes (MCP-PMTs) in the vacuum, leading to changes in the detector construction. In addition, a new MCP-PMT design was needed, as a result of the observed gain drop for high rates and its non-recoverability. Also, other hardware changes are presented— the effect of the replacement of glued crystal bars by monolithic ones, as well as the change of the MCP-PMT back-end electronics, based on simulation to reduce signal cross-talk resulting in further detector time resolution improvement. The second part of the document is devoted to the achieved time resolutions, 20 ± 4 ps and 26 ± 5 ps, of two installed ToF detectors. Despite their very low efficiencies (below 10%) in major parts of the analyzed data, this represents a superb time resolution for detectors operating a few millimeters from the LHC beams. Based on the time resolution, this result characterizes the best ToF detector among those operated by the different LHC experiments in the forward regions during the LHC Run2. Finally, the possibility of reconstructing the z-coordinate of the ATLAS interaction region using the ToF detectors is shown.

Single photon time resolution of photodetectors at high rate: Hamamatsu R13742 MaPMT and R10754 MCP-PMT

This paper reports on the time resolution of two photodetectors operated as single photon counters at high rate: a Hamamatsu R13742-103-M64 “conventional” (based on metal dynodes) multi-anode photomultiplier tube (MaPMT) and a Hamamatsu R10754-07-M16 microchannel plate photomultiplier tube (MCP-PMT). The MCP-PMT shows a time resolution (transit time spread, or jitter) of ∼70 ps FWHM (∼30 ps RMS) at low photon rates, but saturates above ∼100 kHz/mm2. The MaPMT can handle photon counting rates up to the highest tested, 10 MHz/mm2. Its time resolution is ∼250 ps FWHM (∼110 ps RMS) when only the pixel center is illuminated, but pixel edge effects degrade the resolution to ∼400 ps FWHM (∼170 ps RMS) when the entire pixel area is illuminated.

Timing resolution and rate capability of Photonis miniPlanacon XPM85212/A1-S MCP-PMT

We report here on a set of experiments that focus on measuring the timing performance of the Photonis miniPlanacon XPM85212/A1-S microchannel plate photomultiplier tubes along with the detector response at high event rates. The detector has a single photoelectron timing resolution of 30ps at low rates (10kHz). We show that both the gain and the timing start to deteriorate around 1MHz with 20 photoelectrons per channel at 104 target gain, giving the current per unit of area limits of 1.38 μA∕cm2 and 2.38 μA∕cm2 for the two tested devices. Photo-multiplier tubes with lower micro-channel plate resistivity exhibit a better rate capability due to the faster replenishment of the charge inside the microchannels. As we demonstrate, another method to improve the rate capability is to operate the photon detector tubes at a lower gain by reducing the supply voltage and compensating for the loss of amplitude by an additional amplification stage at the expense of the achieved timing resolution. The tube active area over which the beam is spread also plays a role since the same amount of light yields a better rate capability when spread over a larger area. The tubes exposed to high event rates showed an uncharacteristically slow recovery back to its initial gain with 80% of the initial gain recovered only after several tens of minutes.

Time imaging reconstruction for the PANDA Barrel DIRC

The innovative Barrel DIRC (Detection of Internally Reflected Cherenkov light) counter will provide hadronic particle identification (PID) in the central region of the PANDA experiment at the new Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research (FAIR), Darmstadt, Germany. This detector is designed to separate charged pions and kaons with at least 3 standard deviations for momenta up to 3.5 GeV/c, covering the polar angle range of 22̂−140̂. An array of microchannel plate photomultiplier tubes is used to detect the location and arrival time of the Cherenkov photons with a position resolution of 2 mm and time precision of about 100 ps. The time imaging reconstruction has been developed to make optimum use of the observables and to determine the performance of the detector. This reconstruction algorithm performs particle identification by directly calculating the maximum likelihoods using probability density functions based on detected photon propagation time in each pixel, determined directly from the data, or analytically, or from detailed simulations.

Study on the improvement of the 20-inch microchannel plate photomultiplier tubes for neutrino detector

The 20-inch MCP-PMT employs microchannel plates (MCP) as the electron multiplier unlike the traditional photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) with the dynode structure. According to the performance requirements for 20-inch PMTs to be used in the Hyper-Kamiokande (Hyper-K) project, North Night Vision Technology Co., Ltd. (NNVT) developed a novel 20-inch MCP-PMT based on the modification of the 20-inch MCP-PMT used for the Jiangmen Underground Neutrino Observatory by optimizing the design of the focusing electrode structure, the fabrication of the photocathode, and the other processes. The performance of the new NNVT 20-inch MCP-PMTs was evaluated and compared with respect to time resolution and noise. It was found that the transit time spread of the novel type is lower than 4 ns and the dark count rate is lower than 15 kHz. Compared to the previous model, the novel 20-inch MCP-PMT presents enhanced performance for time resolution and noise that is promising for its use in high-energy physics applications such as neutrino detection.

Study on the Performance of an Ultraviolet Microchannel Plate Photomultiplier

Ultraviolet(UV)photomultipliers are key detectors in UV warning systems and communication.The UV microchannel plate photomultiplier tube(MCP-PMT)has the merits of high sensitivity,high gain,high resolution,low noise,small volume,and vibration resistance.However,the UV photomultiplier was invented too recently,and its technical performance is weak.Thus,further development and performance studies of the UV MCP-PMT has attracted increased attention.In this paper,a UV MCP-PMT using an end window structure is discussed.MgF2 and Cs2Te are used as the light window material and photocathode material,respectively.The UV MCP-PMT can detect theday blindUV band from 200 to 300 nm.A high-gain double channel plate structure is adopted.The device has a multiplication ability of approximately 5×10^6 under low voltage,thus improving the single photon detection capability of the UV MCP-PMT.This paper gives a brief introduction of the applications of UV MCP-PMT and the development of this type of photomultiplier in China and foreign countries.The test method of UV MCP-PMT is studied.The performance of the self-developed photomultiplier is evaluated,and the obtained data are analyzed.The results show that the MCP-PMT has high cathode radiation sensitivity with good response to single photons.Compared with the same type of products abroad,this design has the advantages of high gain,high peak valley ratio,and high resolution.

Optimizing Parameters of the Fiber-Optic Beam-Loss Monitor for the VEPP-5 Injection Complex

The distributed beam-loss monitor based on the Cherenkov radiation in an optical fiber installed on the e–e+ Injection Complex at the Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics is considered. Monitor parameters are optimized based on a numerical model and experimental data. For a 45-m-long quartz fiber (with a core diameter of 550 μm) and a microchannel plate photomultiplier as a signal detector, a spatial resolution of less than 1 m is achieved. Software for processing photodetector signals, which allows the real-time monitoring of the distribution of beam loss along the entire beam line, is developed.

Precise analysis of the timing performance of Cherenkov-radiator-integrated MCP-PMTs: analytical deconvolution of MCP direct interactions

In order to achieve the ultimate goal of reducing coincidence time resolution (CTR) to 10 ps, thus enabling reconstruction-less positron emission tomography, a Cherenkov-radiator-integrated microchannel plate photomultiplier tube (CRI) reaching CTR of sub-50 ps full width at half maximum (FWHM) has been developed. However, a histogram of time differences between a pair of the CRIs shows undesirable side peaks, which are caused by gamma rays directly interacting with the micro channel plates (MCPs). Such direct interaction events are detrimental to the timing performance of the CRI. In this paper, we demonstrate an analytical method of deconvolving MCP direct interaction events from the timing histogram. Considering the information of the main and the two side peaks, the timing uncertainty caused by the MCP direct interaction events is deconvolved and the CTR of the CRI is analytically investigated. Consequently, the CTR is improved from 41.7 to 40.5 ps FWHM by the deconvolution. It means that a mixture of the Cherenkov radiator events and the MCP direct interaction events contribute to the CTR by a factor of 10 ps. The timing performance of the MCP direct interaction events are also evaluated. The CTR between the two MCPs is found to be 66.2 ps FWHM. This indicates that a photocathode-free radiation detector with high timing performance is possible. Elimination of the photocathode from the detector would make detector construction easier and more robust.

Air-transfer production method for large-area picosecond photodetectors.

We have designed and prototyped the process steps for the batch production of large-area micro-channel-plate photomultipliers (MCP-PMT) using the "air-transfer" assembly process developed with single LAPPDTM modules. Results are presented addressing the challenges of designing a robust package that can transmit large numbers of electrical signals for pad or strip readout from inside the vacuum tube and of hermetically sealing the large-perimeter window-body interface. We have also synthesized a photocathode in a large-area low-aspect-ratio volume and have shown that the micro-channel plates recover their functionality after cathode synthesis. These steps inform a design for a multi-module batch facility employing dual nested low-vacuum and ultra-high-vacuum systems in a small-footprint. The facility design provides full access to multiple MCP-PMT modules prior to hermetic pinch-off for leak-checking and real-time photocathode optimization.

Status of the TORCH Project

The TORCH time-of-flight detector will provide particle identification between 2–10 GeV/c momentum over a flight distance of 10 m, and is designed for large-area coverage, up to 30 m2. A 15 ps time-of-flight resolution per incident particle is anticipated by measuring the arrival times from Cherenkov photons produced in a synthetic fused silica radiator plate of 10 mm thickness. Customised Micro-Channel Plate Photomultiplier Tube (MCP-PMT) photon detectors of 53 × 53 mm2 active area with a 64 × 64 granularity have been developed with industrial partners. Test-beam studies using both a small-scale TORCH demonstrator and a half-length TORCH module are presented. The desired timing resolution of 70 ps per single photon is close to being achieved.

MCP-PMT development at Argonne for particle identification

The proposed high-energy high-luminosity polarized Electron-Ion Collider (EIC) demands excellent particle identification over a wide range of particles momenta to achieve the best separation between signal and background particles. Various Cherenkov imaging detector sub-systems are being considered in EIC detector concepts for hadron identification for particles momenta up to 50 GeV/c. One important challenge in this case is to provide a reliable highly pixelated photosensor working in the high radiation and high magnetic field environment. The recently commercialized Large Area Picosecond Photo-Detector (LAPPD) provides a promising low-cost photosensor solution for the various EIC Cherenkov imaging sub-systems. Optimization of the phtosensor design for high magnetic field tolerance, precision timing resolution, and pixelated readout was performed at Argonne National Laboratory with 6 × 6 cm2 microchannel plate photomultipliers. The techniques and optimized design parameters would be transferrable to industrial partners for low-cost LAPPD production to achieve the demonstrated performance.

Status of the PANDA Endcap Disc DIRC project

The PANDA experiment at FAIR near Darmstadt, Germany, is under construction, planned to investigate fundamental questions of hadron physics with a fixed proton target by using an antiproton beam within a momentum range of 1.5 to 15 GeV/c. A novel Cherenkov detector, the Endcap Disc DIRC (EDD), has been developed to separate π± and K± by at least 3 standard deviation up to 4 GeV/c. It will cover the polar angle range of the forward endcap of the PANDA target spectrometer from 5̂ to 22̂. The EDD uses a 2 cm thick fused silica radiator plate with focusing elements at the outer rim and lifetime-enhanced Microchannel-Plate PMTs (MCP-PMTs) as light sensors. The Cherenkov radiator of the EDD consists of four identical independent quadrants, polished with highest precision in order to conserve the internally reflected Cherenkov angle during light propagation. This manuscript confirms basic functionalities of the EDD design and tests of the prototype with particle beams at CERN in 2018.

Simulation of magnetic field effects on the MCP gain

A multi-anode microchannel plate photomultiplier (Ma MCP-PMT) is an appropriate photo sensor for particle identification in high energy physics experiments such as PANDA, Belle II, etc. Since these detectors usually work in a strong magnetic field, the sensors must be immune to the field. In this article, the effects of the magnetic field on the conventional MCP and the atomic layer deposited MCP (ALD-MCP) are studied by simulating the electron multiplication in the microchannel of the MCP . Simulation results show that the gain of conventional MCP-PMTs increases a little before it starts decreasing while the magnetic field is further increasing. We found that the shortening of electronic trajectories and the reduction of secondary electrons mainly contribute to gain variations of a conventional MCP . For the ALD-MCP that usually has higher secondary emission yields, it is found that high re-diffusion secondary electron yields could make it more vulnerable to magnetic fields.

Test-beam studies of a small-scale TORCH time-of-flight demonstrator

TORCH is a time-of-flight detector designed to perform particle identification over the momentum range 2–10 GeV/c for a 10 m flight path. The detector exploits prompt Cherenkov light produced by charged particles traversing a quartz plate of 10mm thickness. Photons are then trapped by total internal reflection and directed onto a detector plane instrumented with customised position-sensitive Micro-Channel Plate Photo-Multiplier Tube (MCP-PMT) detectors. A single-photon timing resolution of 70ps is targeted to achieve the desired separation of pions and kaons, with an expectation of around 30 detected photons per track. Studies of the performance of a small-scale TORCH demonstrator with a radiator of dimensions 120×350×10mm3 have been performed in two test-beam campaigns during November 2017 and June 2018. Single-photon time resolutions ranging from 104.3ps to 114.8ps and 83.8ps to 112.7ps have been achieved for MCP-PMTs with granularity 4 × 64 and 8 × 64 pixels, respectively. Photon yields are measured to be within ∼10% and ∼30% of simulation, respectively. Finally, the outlook for future work with planned improvements is presented.

Timing performance of a Micro-Channel-Plate Photomultiplier Tube

The spatial dependence of the timing performance of the R3809U-50 Micro-Channel-Plate PMT (MCP-PMT) by Hamamatsu was studied in high energy muon beams. Particle position information is provided by a GEM tracker telescope, while timing is measured relative to a second MCP-PMT, identical in construction. In the inner part of the circular active area (radius r<5.5 mm) the time resolution of the two MCP-PMTs combined is better than 10 ps. The signal amplitude decreases in the outer region due to less light reaching the photocathode, resulting in a worse time resolution. The observed radial dependence is in quantitative agreement with a dedicated simulation. With this characterization, the suitability of MCP-PMTs as t0 reference detectors has been validated.