Microbial Hazards Research Articles

Application of ohmic heating for the inactivation of microbiological hazards in food products

AbstractOhmic heating has long been used to inactivate pathogens in food products. Several research investigations on the use of ohmic heating technology in the inactivation of microbial hazards in food products are discussed in this review. These studies are discussed under the following sub‐headings: (a) inactivation of microbiological hazards, (b) in combination treatments with other sanitizing technologies, and (c) mathematical modeling, all of which are of long‐standing interest. In this review, we evaluate ohmic heating as a rapid and volumetric heating process that inactivates microbiological hazards in food products. We also examine ohmic heating‐based combination treatments as promising methods to maximize microbial inactivation efficacy and minimize the quality deterioration of food products. We first highlight the fact that most researchers had an interest in the inactivation of vegetative pathogens, whereas only a few focused on the inactivation of bacterial spores. In general, significantly higher treatment conditions were needed to inactivate bacterial spores (>95°C) than vegetative pathogens (>50°C). Studies on the inactivation of viral pathogens by ohmic heating are limited, and further research is needed in this field. In the first part of this review, the nonthermal effects of ohmic heating are also discussed, which is a popular topic in the food industry. Cumulatively, research suggests that that these nonthermal effects are dependent on the treatment conditions and the electrical conductivity of different food samples. Therefore, we suggest that focus should be on the thermal rather than the nonthermal effects of ohmic heating when considering the application of this technology to inactivate pathogens. Finally, we introduced combination technology based on ohmic heating and mathematical modeling, which are of interest recently.

Обґрунтування терміну реалізації харчової продукції

Objective of the Work. The overview of current methodical approaches for experimental substantiation of the sell-by date of food products. Methods and Materials. Data analysis of scientific literature and normative documents on methods of substantiation of the sell-by date of food products. Results and Discussion. Sell-by date is a period since product’s manufacture, during which it maintains its safety and quality (including nutritional value) within reasonably foreseeable conditions of storage, distribution and consumption. In the case of new products (recipes) introduction it is necessary to review the sell-by date, and its extending as the need arises. The main aspects of microbiological substantiation of the sell-by date of food products are considered. The identification of microbial hazard for particular product is the first phase of the work. The second phase of the work is to determine the kinetic parameters of precise microorganism’s accumulation to maximum permitted level within regulated and aggravated conditions of product’s storage. Conclusions. In the process of microbiological substantiation of the sell-by date of food products it should be taken into consideration the presence of leading pathogen and causative microorganisms of microbial spoilage, the initial contamination level, the lag phase duration of germ culture development, variations between strains, the kinetics of microorganisms’ accumulation within the product in real and aggravated storage conditions, the indetermination connected with biological nature of microorganisms and their inhomogeneous allocation within the product, the limitation for shortcut research methods (if applicable). The decision rule should be based on the consumer’s risk concept. Key Words: food products, sell-by date, substantiation, microbiological indicators.

Microbial quality and safety of milk and milk products in the 21st century.

Milk and milk products have been utilized by humans for many thousands of years. With the advent of metagenomic studies, our knowledge on the microbiota of milk and milk products, especially as affected by the environment, production, and storage parameters, has increased. Milk quality depends on chemical parameters (fat and protein content and absence of inhibitory substances), as well as microbial and somatic cells counts, and affects the price of milk. The effects of hygiene and effective cooling on the spoilage microbiota have shown that proteolytic and lipolytic bacteria such as Pseudomonas or Acinetobacter spp. predominate the spoilage bacterial populations. These bacteria can produce heat-stable proteases and lipases, which remain active after pasteurization and thus can spoil the milk during prolonged storage. Additionally, milk can become contaminated after pasteurization and therefore there is still a high demand on developing better cleaning and sanitation regimes and equipment, as well as test systems to (quantitatively) detect relevant pathogenic or spoilage microorganisms. Raw milk and raw milk cheese consumption is also increasing worldwide with the growing demand of minimally processed, sustainable, healthy, and local foods. In this context, emerging and re-emerging pathogens once again represent a major food safety challenge. As a result of global warming, it is conceivable that not only microbiological risks but also chemical risks relating to presence of mycotoxins or plant toxins in milk will increase. Herein, we provide an overview of the major microbial hazards occurring in the 21st century.

Microbial Safety of Milk Production and Fermented Dairy Products in Africa

In Africa, milk production, processing and consumption are integral part of traditional food supply, with dairy products being a staple component of recommended healthy diets. This review provides an overview of the microbial safety characteristics of milk production and fermented dairy products in Africa. The object is to highlight the main microbial food safety hazards in the dairy chain and to propose appropriate preventive and control measures. Pathogens of public health concern including Mycobacterium bovis, Brucella abortus and Coxiella burnettii, which have largely been eradicated in many developed nations, still persist in the dairy chain in Africa. Factors such as the natural antimicrobial systems in milk and traditional processing technologies, including fermentation, heating and use of antimicrobial additives, that can potentially contribute to microbial safety of milk and dairy products in Africa will be discussed. Practical approaches to controlling safety hazards in the dairy chain in Africa have been proposed. Governmental regulatory bodies need to set the necessary national and regional safety standards, perform inspections and put measures in place to ensure that the standards are met, including strong enforcement programs within smallholder dairy chains. Dairy chain actors would require upgraded knowledge and training in preventive approaches such as good agricultural practices (GAP), hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) design and implementation and good hygienic practices (GHPs). Food safety education programs should be incorporated into school curricula, beginning at the basic school levels, to improve food safety cognition among students and promote life-long safe food handling behaviour.

A qualitative risk assessment approach to microbial foodborne hazards in Brazilian intensive pork production: A step towards risk prioritization

The application of biosecurity measures in pig farms has prompted a shift in epidemiological reality, altering the risk profile attributed to the consumption of pork. The inspection of pig carcasses in Brazil is based on incisions and palpations to seek lesions mainly related to classic zoonotic diseases. We describe the use of a qualitative risk assessment from the farm to the table to characterize the risk of foodborne disease caused by biological hazards to humans due to the consumption of pork. The model was adapted from the Codex Alimentarius and comprises four steps: (I) hazard identification, (II) hazard characterization, (III) exposure assessment, and (IV) risk characterization. The exposure assessment step considers the release of hazards at a pre-harvest level (i.e., swine in herds) and the amplification or reduction of the release during the procedure to obtain pork from a carcass. Risk characterization is classified into five levels, from very low to very high. No hazard had very high risk, Salmonella sp. [nontyphoidal] had high risk, no hazard had moderate risk, seven hazards had low risk, and other hazards had very low risk. When the initial release was increased, the risk for hazards with higher adverse effects (e.g. C. botulinum, B. suis, and E. coli [STEC]) increased to very high or high. The uncertainty was very high for seven hazards and very low for three. These findings can help the Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture discuss changes in the routine inspection of the carcasses of pigs raised in industrial systems in Brazil.

Controlling of Microbial Hazards for Potato Chips manufacturing through Food Safety Management System (ISO 22000)

Food safety is a fundamental public health concern, and achieving a safe supply poses major challenges for organization involved in the food chain, so numbers of foodborne hazards must be properly analyzed, assessed and managed to meet growing and increasingly complex sets of global food chain. Proper implementation of food hygiene principle across the food chain in conjunction with hazards analysis and critical control points system will ensure food safety. In this study, Microbiological hazards were controlled for two fried potato chips production lines, processing & packaging for each line starting from raw materials receiving, storage…etc, where microbiolgical tests were carried out at all stages of product production on raw materials received, water used in the manufacturing process, microbiological swabs were taken from the equipment and surfaces of the processing and packaging lines as well as the hands of the workers, in short the stages of potato chips production are as follows: Potatoes receiving & storage ==> Washing ==> Peeling ==> Manual sorting ==> slicing ==> washing and remove starch ==> Frying ==> Optical & Manual sorting ==> Seasoning ==> Packaging and print coding ==> Palletizing. Based on actual conditions in the plant a specific Hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) model has been developed to ensure safe product, reduce and support the traditional inspection and quality procedure of fried potato chips product through food safety management system ( FSMS-ISO 22000), the prerequisite programs (PRPs), operational prerequisite programs (OPRPs), critical control point (CCP), critical limits, preventive, monitoring procedures and corrective actions have been designed in this HACCP plan.

Improved detection of mcyA genes and their phylogenetic origins in harmful algal blooms

Microcystins, a group of cyanotoxins produced by cyanobacterial strains, have become a significant microbial hazard to human and animal health due to increases in the frequency and intensity of cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (CyanoHABs). Many studies have explored the correlation between microcystin concentrations and abundances of toxin-producing genes (e.g., mcyA genes) measured using quantitative PCR, and discrepancies between toxin concentrations and gene abundances are often observed. In this study, the results show that these discrepancies are at least partially due to primer sets that do not capture the phylogenetic diversity of naturally present toxin-producers. We designed three novel primer gene probes based on known mcyA genes to improve the detection and quantification of these genes in environmental samples. These primers were shown to improve the identification of mcyA genes compared to previously published primers in freshwater metagenomes, cyanobacterial isolates, and lake water samples. Unlike previously published primers, our primer sets could selectively amplify and resolve Microcystis, Anabaena, and Planktothrix mcyA genes. In lake water samples, abundance estimations of mcyA genes were found to correlate strongly with microcystin concentrations. Based on our results, these primers offer significant improvements over previously published probes to accurately identify and quantify mcyA genes in the environment. There is an increasing need to develop models based on microbial information and environmental factors to predict CyanoHABs, and improved primers will play an important role in aiding monitoring efforts to collect reliable and consistent data on toxicity risks.

Health Hazards Associated with Ready-to-Eat-Meat in Nigeria: A Call for Public Concern and Critical Interventions

Scientific investigations on ready-to-eat meat (RTEM), popularly called Suya, sold in Nigeria are generating several public concerns due to microbial and chemical hazards associated with such products. This review evaluated the safety profile of Nigerian RTEM, with special focus on “Suya” as a potential source of microbial, heavy metal, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) food hazard. Assessments of outcomes of research articles on safety of RTEM published from 1984 to 2019 were carried out using electronic databases and key words. Research outcomes were categorized into six sections representing the six geopolitical zones (South-south, South-east, South-west, North-east, North-West and North-central) of Nigeria. Virtually all research findings in various zones revealed microbial, heavy metal or PAHs levels on RTEM were below acceptable standards. Unhygienic activities of most meat slaughterers (source of raw meat), processors (preparation and packaging of RTEM) and vendors (display and hawking process) were major contributing factors to microbial and chemical hazards. To this end, adequate safety and sanitary measures suggested and other essentials should be implemented by designated authorities and relevant stakeholders in ensuring the menace posed by unhygienic RTEM is curtailed drastically.

The Effect of Standard Pelleting and More Thermally Aggressive Pelleting Utilizing a Hygieniser on Feed Manufacture and Reduction of Enterococcus faecium, a Salmonella Surrogate

Feed hygienics are of ever increasing importance in providing safe feed to animals, and ultimately safe food for consumers. Salmonella has been identified as a major microbial hazard in animal feed that has been linked to illness in both animals and humans. Use of antibiotics has decreased in recent years due to policies and practices of poultry production, increasing opportunities for potential pathogens in feed to affect poultry and poultry products. New feed equipment technology provides an option to combat feed pathogens. For example, hygienisers have been suggested to decrease Salmonella associated with mash feeds due to the ability to maintain conditioned feed temperature for an extended time. Enterococcus faecium (E. faecium) is a non-pathogenic surrogate used to study reduction of Salmonella. The objective of the current study was to compare feed manufacture and Salmonella surrogate (E. faecium ATCC 8459) reduction differences between standard pelleting and more thermally aggressive pelleting utilizing a hygieniser. More thermally aggressive pelleting decreased pellet mill motor load (P = 0.02), increased hot pellet temperature (P = 0.02), and tended to increase pellet durability (P = 0.07). E. faecium ATCC 8459 colonies decreased with standard pelleting relative to inoculated mash and were reduced further with more thermally aggressive pelleting (P<0.05). Standard pelleting and more thermally aggressive pelleting resulted in a 3 and 4-log reduction in E. faecium ATCC 8459, respectively, relative to inoculated mash. More thermally aggressive pelleting utilizing a hygieniser may improve manufacture efficiency, pellet quality, and Salmonella reduction.

Microbial quality of poultry meat in an ISO 22000:2005 certified poultry processing plant of Kathmandu valley

Poultry meat can be contaminated by different types of microorganisms during processing in processing plant. The microbiological quality of chicken carcasses and along with processing steps and environmental condition was analyzed in this study in an ISO 22000:2005 certified poultry processing plant of Kathmandu. Standard plate count method was applied for the enumeration and detection of total mesophilic bacteria, total coliform, total faecal coliform, Staphylococcus load along with selected pathogens like Salmonella spp., S. aureus, Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens, and Listeria spp. in chicken meat at four processing step (evisceration, final washing, frozen and market). It was observed that the level of microbial load decreased with subsequent processing phases in poultry processing plant where high level of bacteria were reduced during final washing and frozen phase. After processing poultry meat in an ISO 22000:2005 certified meat processing plant, total aerobic mesophilic count, total coliform count, total faecal coliform count, total Staphylococcus count were decreased from 6.92 to 4.45 log CFU/g, 3.49 to 2.19 log CFU/g, 2.41 to nil log CFU/g, and 3..43 to 1.99 log CFU/g respectively. Pathogenic bacteria like Salmonella spp., C. perfringens, and Listeria spp. were absent in chicken meat at the fourth processing step. Prevalence of E. coli was reduced from 37.4% to 10.2%, whereas S. aureus was decreased from 18.57% to 17.1%. It was concluded that the final washing and freezing steps were the Critical Control Point (CCP) to control microbial hazards in poultry processing phase.

Microbial assessment of medicinal herbs (Cnidii Rhizoma and Alismatis Rhizoma), effects of electron beam irradiation and detection characteristics.

Medicinal herbs comprise of heavy microbial contaminations. This study aimed to assess microbial hazards including foodborne pathogens in 20 commercial medicinal herbs, Cnidii Rhizoma (C1-C10) and Alismatis Rhizoma (T1-T10) as well as to evaluate irradiation effects of E-beam on microbial load and detection chracteristics. Four samples (C5, C10, T1, T8) from both herbs with higher microbial load were selected for evaluating the irradiation effect of E-beam (up to 10kGy) on microbial load and radiation-induced changes in detection markers by standard methods (Codex, Korean Food Code), such as direct epifluorescent filter technique/aerobic plate count (DEFT/APC), photostimulated luminescence (PSL), thermoluminescence (TL), and electron spin resonance (ESR). DEFT/APC revealed non-evidence of pre-sterilization of all samples. PSL differentiated irradiated samples (1, 5, and 10kGy) of both herbs from non-irradiated (control: 0kGy). Both TL and ESR methods validated PSL screening results by detecting radiation-induced markers from E-beam irradiated medicinal herbs.

Comparison of Predicted Microbiological Human Health Risks Associated with de Facto, Indirect, and Direct Potable Water Reuse.

Increasing interest in recycling water for potable purposes makes understanding the risks associated with potential acute microbial hazards important. We compared risks from de facto reuse, indirect potable reuse (IPR), and direct potable reuse (DPR) scenarios using a previously published quantitative microbial risk assessment methodology and literature review results. The de facto reuse simulation results are compared to a Cryptosporidium spp. database collected for the Long Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule's information collection rule (ICR) and to a literature review of norovirus (NoV) densities in ambient surface waters. The de facto simulation results with a treated wastewater effluent contribution of 1% in surface waters and a residence time of 30 days most closely match the ICR dataset. The de facto simulations also suggest that using NoV monitoring data from surface waters may overestimate microbial risks, compared to NoV data from raw sewage coupled with wastewater treatment reduction estimates. The predicted risks from IPR and DPR are consistently lower than those for the de facto reuse scenarios assuming the AWTFs are operating within design specifications. These analyses provide insight into the microbial risks associated with various potable reuse scenarios and highlight the need to carefully consider drinking water treatment choices when wastewater effluent is a component of any drinking water supply.

Microbial safety status of Serro artisanal cheese produced in Brazil

Considering the growing consumption of artisanal foods worldwide, we aimed to evaluate the microbial safety of Serro artisanal cheese (SAC), produced in Minas Gerais State, Brazil. This cheese is produced with raw milk using 1 of 2 natural starter cultures: "pingo" and "rala." A total of 53 SAC samples (pingo = 8; rala = 45) were obtained from different farmers and subjected to conventional and molecular assays to detect and enumerate Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., coagulase-positive staphylococci (CPS), diarrheagenic Escherichia coli, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and Brucella abortus. The SAC samples were also subjected to an ELISA to detect classical staphylococcal enterotoxins (CSE: SEA, SEB, SEC, SED, SEE) and to PCR assays to detect staphylococcal enterotoxin-related genes (sea, seb, sec, sed, see). Coagulase-positive staphylococci isolates were obtained and tested by the same assays to detect their potential in CSE production and presence of CSE-related genes. None of the SAC samples showed any of the screened food-borne pathogens and zoonotic agents, and none showed the presence of CSE by phenotypic and genotypic approaches. Despite the absence of microbial hazards, mean counts of CPS in SAC samples were 5.2 log cfu/g (pingo starter) and 4.6 log cfu/g (rala starter), indicating poor hygiene practices during production. None of the tested CPS isolates (n = 116) produced CSE or presented CSE-related genes. Despite the relative microbial safety, hygienic conditions during SAC production must be improved to meet official guidelines established in Brazil.

The feasibility of pulsed light processing in the meat industry

Today, the increasing demand for minimally processed foods that are nutritious, sensorially acceptable, and free from microbial, chemical and physical hazards, challenges research and development to establish alternative methods to reduce the level of bacterial contamination. As one of the newly developing non-thermal methods, pulsed light is a technology for the fast, mild, and residue-free surface decontamination of meat and meat contact materials in the meat processing environment. This review provides specific information on pulsed light technology and the feasibility of its application for unpackaged and packaged meat and meat products as well as meat contact materials. The advantages, limitations and achieved effects of pulsed light on microbial inactivation, lipid peroxidation, sensory quality and color of meat, seafood and meat products are illustrated and discussed in relation to its implementation on the industrial level.

Health effects associated with wastewater treatment, reuse, and disposal.

This paper highlights the review of scientific literature published in the year 2018 on issues related to health risks associated with human and the general environment on the reuse of wastewater, treatment as well as disposal. The literature review on the above issues divided into number of sections, and these sections include management of wastewater, wastewater reuse with focus on microbial hazards, and chemical hazards. Further, the review also provides some recent research related to wastewater treatment plants, disposal of wastewater, sludge, and biosolids management. PRACTITIONER POINTS: This paper highlights the review of scientific literature published in the year 2018. Review provide issues related to health risks associated with human and the general environment on the reuse of wastewater, treatment as well as disposal. Literature review covers selected papers relevant to the topic.

Toxicological evaluation of lotus, ginkgo, and garlic tailored fermented Korean soybean paste (Doenjang) for biogenic amines, aflatoxins, and microbial hazards

The present study aimed to develop a consortium of nutritive fermented food products, supplemented with phytochemicals, with reduced toxicological contents. We developed new flavored Doenjang products (protein rich) fermented with lotus, ginkgo, and garlic plant extract-based Meju (termed as EMD) as the starter culture and by using traditional Meju (termed as TMD), where these plant extracts were added later during the fermentation process. Fermented Doenjang samples were analyzed for reduced levels of biogenic amines (BAs), aflatoxins, and microbial hazards, (including Bacillus cereus) as well as for their nutritive contents and antioxidant potential, after varying periods of fermentation (0, 3, 6, 9 and 12 months). All Doenjang samples prepared using plant extracts and their mixtures (1% and 10%) showed desired reduction in B. cereus counts, BAs, aflatoxins, and other foodborne pathogens as well as showed potent antioxidant abilities, including phenolic/flavonoid contents. Based on the higher efficiency in reducing various toxicants, Ginkgo biloba leaf extract added TMD samples were selected for the development of Doenjang products as an innovative approach, with great potential to improve the quality and safety of soybean fermented products in the Korean market, offering enhanced health benefits and reduced risks of toxicity.

Challenges for contact recreation in a tropical urban lake: assessment by a water quality index

Water pollution control is challenging in catchments affected by ‘informal’ urban development. Lake Pampulha, an impoundment that is a major tourist focus within the municipality of Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais state, Brazil, provides an example of degradation of aquatic environments by disorganised urbanization. We evaluated the current recreational suitability of the lake using state government monitoring data (2012-2017) with reference to Brazilian legislation and a water quality index for contact recreation in Brazilian freshwaters, considering E. coli (indicating faecal pollution and microbial hazards), cyanobacterial density (health risks and aesthetic quality), turbidity (aesthetics and safety associated with visual clarity), and pH (safety and eye-comfort). Our results show that, despite investments in pollution control, the recreational water quality of Lake Pampulha remains very poor. Contact recreation was most limited by persistent cyanobacterial blooms, but also faecal contamination and low visual water clarity. The effects of high phosphorus loading and faecal contamination from unsewered domestic wastewater is exacerbated by a tropical climate, promoting stable thermal stratification (favouring cyanobacterial dominance) and turbid wet-season runoff. Water quality indexing is a powerful tool not just for interpreting and communicating multiple metrics affecting water resources, but also for guiding rehabilitation efforts and tracking progress.

Current knowledge on the microbiota of edible insects intended for human consumption: A state-of-the-art review.

Because of their positive nutritional characteristics and low environmental impact, edible insects might be considered a 'food of the future'. However, there are safety concerns associated with the consumption of insects, such as contaminating chemical and biological agents. The possible presence of pathogenic and toxigenic microorganisms is one of the main biological hazards associated with edible insects. This review presents an overview of the microbiota of edible insects, highlighting the potential risks for human health. Detailed information on the microbiota of edible insects from literature published in 2000-2019 is presented. These data show complex ecosystems, with marked variations in microbial load and diversity, among edible insects as well as stable and species-specific microbiota for some of the most popular edible insect species, such as mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) and grasshoppers (Locusta migratoria). Raw edible insects generally contain high numbers of mesophilic aerobes, bacterial endospores or spore-forming bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, lactic acid bacteria, psychrotrophic aerobes, and fungi, and potentially harmful species (i.e. pathogenic, mycotoxigenic, and spoilage microbes) may be present. Several studies have focused on reducing the microbial contamination of edible insects by applying treatments such as starvation, rinsing, thermal treatments, chilling, drying, fermentation, and marination, both alone and, sometimes, in combination. Although these studies show that various heat treatments were the most efficient methods for reducing microbial numbers, they also highlight the need for species-specific mitigation strategies. The feasibility of using edible insects as ingredients in the food industry in the development of innovative insect-based products has been explored; although, in some cases, the presence of spore-forming bacteria and other food-borne pathogens is a concern. Recent studies have shown that a risk assessment of edible insects should also include an evaluation of the incidence of antibiotic-resistance (AR) genes and antibiotic-resistant microorganisms in the production chain. Finally, as proposed in the literature, microbial hazards should be limited through the implementation of good hygienic practices during rearing, handling, processing, and storage, as well as the implementation of an appropriate HACCP system for edible insect supply chains. Another issue frequently reported in the literature is the need for a legislative framework for edible insect production, commercialisation, and trading, as well as the need for microbiological criteria specifically tailored for edible insects. Microbiological criteria like those already been established for the food safety and hygiene (e.g. those in the European Union food law) of different food categories (e.g. ready-to-eat products) could be applied to edible insect-based products.

English

English

Microbial hazards associated with pig carcasses and molecular detection of enterotoxigenic &lt;i&gt;Staphylococcus aureus&lt;/i&gt; at different stages of the slaughter process

Foodborne diseases have sparked a wave of continuous public health concern and the need for proactive measures to be taken in our communities. This study is aimed at determining the microbiological hazards associated with the pig slaughter process, assess the critical control points and screen for enterotoxin-producing Staphylococcus aureus. Three pig slaughter and processing facilities located within Makurdi town, Nigeria were utilized for the study. Swabs from carcasses during the slaughter process and the butchers’ hands, water used for washing carcasses and meat samples were all processed using standard bacteriological procedures. A total of 241 samples consisting of 150 swabs from 50 carcasses, 32 hand swabs, 9 water and 50 meat samples were evaluated during the study period. Aerobic plate counts (APC) and total coliform bacteria counts (TCBC) were evaluated. The mean APC at the different sampling sites ranged from 7.89 to 8.18 logCFU/cm2 while the mean TCBC ranged from 6.70 to 7.45 logCFU/cm2 . APC and TCBC were significantly different (P 0.05) in samples obtained from the butchers’ hands, although water samples generally had the highest mean APC (8.35 logCFU/ml). Staphylococcus aureus was isolated from 54 (22%) of the 241 samples with 8 (13.8%) of the isolates harbouring one or more enterotoxin genes (sea-17.5% and sed-2.5%). Bleeding, evisceration/splitting, transportation to retail outlets and all stages involving washing were identified as critical control points. Pork consumers in Makurdi were advised to properly cook pork before eating to prevent possible infection and/or intoxication. Keywords : Aerobic plate count, Carcass, Contamination, Enterotoxin, Points, Pork, Total coliform bacteria count