Method For Levels Research Articles

Manage Your Life Online (MYLO): A Pilot Trial of a Conversational Computer-Based Intervention for Problem Solving in a Student Sample

Computerized self-help that has an interactive, conversational format holds several advantages, such as flexibility across presenting problems and ease of use. We designed a new program called MYLO that utilizes the principles of METHOD of Levels (MOL) therapy--based upon Perceptual Control Theory (PCT). We tested the efficacy of MYLO, tested whether the psychological change mechanisms described by PCT mediated its efficacy, and evaluated effects of client expectancy. Forty-eight student participants were randomly assigned to MYLO or a comparison program ELIZA. Participants discussed a problem they were currently experiencing with their assigned program and completed measures of distress, resolution and expectancy preintervention, postintervention and at 2-week follow-up. MYLO and ELIZA were associated with reductions in distress, depression, anxiety and stress. MYLO was considered more helpful and led to greater problem resolution. The psychological change processes predicted higher ratings of MYLO's helpfulness and reductions in distress. Positive expectancies towards computer-based problem solving correlated with MYLO's perceived helpfulness and greater problem resolution, and this was partly mediated by the psychological change processes identified. The findings provide provisional support for the acceptability of the MYLO program in a non-clinical sample although its efficacy as an innovative computer-based aid to problem solving remains unclear. Nevertheless, the findings provide tentative early support for the mechanisms of psychological change identified within PCT and highlight the importance of client expectations on predicting engagement in computer-based self-help.

A Comparison of Data Classification Methods

Categorizing data in order to use them at their highest level of effectiveness and efficiency is called data classification and it is used to perform complex and varied actions in many different fields including the financial field. Accurate classifications can lead to accurate predictions so, the applied classification method is very important. This paper describes and compares the performances of some data classification methods applied for a real dataset. A list of pros and cons is made for each of the used method. The obtained results show that an important role for the method's level of accuracy is played by the choice of features for the considered data to classify.

How should sensory function in the oropharynx be tested? Cold thermal testing; a comparison of the methods of levels and limits

Objective Several studies indicate an upper airway peripheral neuropathy in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS). The sensation of cold, as measured by cold detection thresholds (CDT), in the oropharynx has been shown to be compromised in patients with sleep apnea and, to a lesser extent, habitual snoring. To reveal whether this neuropathy is part of the pathogenetic process of OSAS, longitudinal studies of snorers are needed. The objective of the present study was to establish the test–retest repeatability for the two most commonly used thermal testing methods: the reaction time exclusive method of levels (MLE) and the method of limits (MLI). Methods Forty non-snoring subjects were tested at the soft palate and the lip at two separate occasions (mean interval 45 days) using a Medoc TSA – 2001 equipment with an intra-oral thermode. Results With MLE mean CDT’s were lower for both the lip and soft palate than with MLI. However, MLI showed a better test–retest repeatability ( r = 2.2 vs. 2.6) for the soft palate. Conclusions MLI should be used in longitudinal studies. The performance of this method is also faster. Significance We have established a quick, safe and reliable method suitable for longitudinal studies of peripheral neuropathy in sleep apnea pathogenesis.

Dynamic covalent hydrazine chemistry as a selective extraction and cleanup technique for the quantification of the Fusarium mycotoxin zearalenone in edible oils

A novel, cost-efficient method for the analytical extraction of the Fusarium mycotoxin zearalenone (ZON) from edible oils by dynamic covalent hydrazine chemistry (DCHC) was developed and validated for its application with high performance liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD). ZON is extracted from the edible oil by hydrazone formation on a polymer resin functionalised with hydrazine groups and subsequently released by hydrolysis. Specifity and precision of this approach are superior to liquid partitioning or gel permeation chromatography (GPC). DCHC also extracts zearalanone (ZAN) but not α-/β-zearalenol or -zearalanol. The hydrodynamic properties of ZON, which were estimated using molecular simulation data, indicate that the compound is unaffected by nanofiltration through the resin pores and thus selectively extracted. The method's levels of detection and quantification are 10 and 30 μg/kg, using 0.2 g of sample. Linearity is given in the range of 10–20,000 μg/kg, the average recovery being 89%. Bias and relative standard deviations do not exceed 7%. In a sample survey of 44 commercial edible oils based on various agricultural commodities (maize, olives, nuts, seeds, etc.) ZON was detected in four maize oil samples, the average content in the positive samples being 99 μg/kg. The HPLC-FLD results were confirmed by HPLC–tandem mass spectrometry and compared to those obtained by a liquid partitioning based sample preparation procedure.

Using Perceptual Control Theory and the Method of Levels to work with people who experience psychosis

AbstractThis paper provides an overview of perceptual control theory (PCT) in relation to understanding severe and enduring mental health problems. The core principles of control and conflict are reviewed in relation to understanding the experiences associated with psychotic disorders. The therapeutic application of PCT known as the Method of Levels (MOL) is described and an overview of how this might be a useful approach to use with people experiencing psychosis is provided. The benefits and difficulties of using MOL to work with people experiencing psychosis are described including case illustrations of preliminary work based on the application of MOL in clinical practice. It is concluded that PCT is a useful framework for understanding severe and enduring mental health problems and there are potential benefits in using MOL as a therapeutic intervention. Further research examining the effectiveness and feasibility of MOL as a specific treatment for psychosis is recommended.

A century of psychology and psychotherapy: Is an understanding of control the missing link between theory, research, and practice?

'Control' can be defined as the maintenance of a variable within fixed limits despite external disturbances. There is substantial evidence that the experience of loss of control characterizes psychological disorders. Therefore, we take a historical perspective on how modern psychology as a science has attempted to explain the process of control over the last century, beginning with William James's (1890) proposal of the 'pursuance of fixed ends by variable means' as the essence of mentality. We conclude that, after a long diversion from this perspective during the 20th century, recent approaches within psychology are again considering the importance of understanding control. We propose that Perceptual Control Theory (PCT) presents the most focused and applicable account, as characterized by its relevance for psychological therapy in the form of the Method of Levels (MOL). This is a therapeutic technique directed at guiding the client's awareness to the higher level (or meta-) control processes that maintain their current problem of conflict between their personal goals. We cover the emerging evidence base for PCT and MOL and propose that an understanding of control through PCT has the capacity to link theory, research, and practice within the field of psychotherapy.

REPEATABILITY AND RELIABILITY OF A NEW THERMOTACTILE QUANTITATIVE SENSORY TESTING ALGORITHM

Background Thermotactile quantitative sensory testing (TQST), as a part of quantitative sensory testing (QST), has been used for quantifying perceived thermal sensory thresholds. The suggested TQST algorithm (method of alternate level stimuli – MALS) tries to overcome the weaknesses of the two most often applied algorithms/methods (thermal sensory limen, method of levels). Subjects and The study included 30 healthy subjects, 16 men and 14 women. On average, they were 24 methods years old (SD 2 years), 178.1 high (SD 8.8 cm) and weighed 74.8 kg (SD 16.4 kg). Warm sensory perceived thresholds (WSPT), cool sensory perceived thresholds (CSPT) and interthreshold interval (II) were obtained for further data analysis. Every subject underwent a complex of three measurements twice. For comparison of experimental conditions, independent samples t-test and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used. Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC [2.1]), coefficient of variation (CV) and minimal detectable change (MDC95 ) were used to assess repeatability and reliability of the proposed TQST algorithm. Results ICC for all measures within each measurement series (repeatability) was above 0.45 and CV did not exceed 50 %. When comparing both series (reliability), ICC was above 0.30 for all except two measurements and CV did not exceed 50 %. The difference between two measures within a series was in all cases lower than MDC95 . The same was observed when comparing both series. Altogether, 180 measurements of thermotactile sensory perceived thresholds were made and their average duration was 7.1 min (SD 2.3 min). Conclusions Good repeatability and poor reliability of MALS was observed. The causes of poor reliability can be explained with various factors. Short duration of a single measurement implies promising application of the suggested algorithm for clinical purposes.

Assessing the Statistical and Personal Significance of the Method of Levels

Perceptual Control Theory (PCT) suggests that psychological distress can be conceptualized as the by-product of conflicted control systems. Using a program of psychotherapy based on the principles of PCT called the Method of Levels (MOL), a 12-month study was conducted with 120 patient participants and 4 clinicians. In this study, analyses of statistical significance were conducted. Qualitative data were also analysed to understand psychotherapy from patients' perspectives. Data were collected on the attendance patterns of patients, their ages, referral problem, and socio-economic background. A standardized questionnaire measured pre and post treatment effects. The null hypothesis of no difference between pre and post treatment scores was examined by the derivation of p values and the construction of 95% confidence intervals. In all cases the null hypothesis was rejected. Results suggest that MOL is a useful form of psychotherapy that warrants further investigation.

Dancing with distress: helping people transform psychological problems with the Method of Levels two-step

AbstractThe Method of Levels (MOL) shares many similarities with other therapeutic approaches and is perhaps most distinguishable by what it does not include rather than what it does use in sessions. MOL has two basic steps which are followed in an iterative procedure until the patient/client experiences a change or shift in their understanding and experience of a problem. This article explains the steps and uses examples and suggestions for practice to promote understanding.

PCT and MOL: a brief history of Perceptual Control Theory and the Method of Levels

AbstractI have been asked to describe how Perceptual Control Theory (PCT) and Method of Levels (MOL) came into being, and as I approach the age of 82 that seems a prudent request. Some parts of the following should probably be taken more as a reconstruction than a verifiable record of the past, but I will strive for realism.

Perceptual Control Theory as an integrative framework and Method of Levels as a cognitive therapy: what are the pros and cons?

AbstractThis article considers the pros and cons of using Method of Levels (MOL), a therapy based on Perceptual Control Theory (PCT). Five concerns about PCT are that it is an early theory, is not well known, originates from outside psychology, implies that established theories are inaccurate and has a mechanistic approach. Five positive features are that it explains how ‘control’ works, takes a phenomenological perspective, is grounded in biology, integrates many disciplines and has an evidence base. Five features of MOL can raise caution: it is not well known, emphasizes intrinsic change, requires the therapist to let go of control, concentrate intensively and use alternative evaluations of outcome. There are major advantages: it is a simple process to learn; theory-practice links are clear, it is ‘ultra cognitive therapy’ – focused on the present moment, client-centred and enables shifting in perspective, promotes service empowerment, and has an evidence base. This article will help therapists make an informed choice about using MOL.

Perceptual Control Theory and the Method of Levels: Further Contributions to a Transdiagnostic Perspective

Transdiagnostic approaches to psychological treatment offer the opportunity to consider common processes across seemingly disparate disorders. Although psychological distress exhibits dramatic variability across individuals, it is possible to discern common underlying processes. One of these processes is internal perceptual conflict. Perceptual Control Theory (PCT) provides an explanation for the manifestation and also the resolution of this conflict. A therapeutic approach called the Method of Levels (MOL) has been developed from PCT principles. MOL promotes the reorganization of conflict by shifting an individual's awareness to meta, or more fundamental, goal states. This paper explains PCT and MOL and concludes by describing early empirical evidence for MOL.

Evaluating the method of levels

An investigation of the method of levels (MOL) was undertaken. Based on the principles of perceptual control theory (PCT), MOL is a way of helping people to reduce psychological distress. MOL assumes that psychological distress results when people are unable to control experiences that are important to them. The approach was implemented over six months in a large urban GP practice. Patients attended for between one and six sessions. Patients who attended for more than one session demonstrated significant reductions in scores of symptomatology on a standardized questionnaire. Effect sizes of these differences were relatively large. There appeared to be no relationship between the number of sessions a patient attended and the amount of reduction in symptomatology that was recorded. Similarly, there was no relationship between the number of sessions a patient attended and their recorded level of symptomatology at their first appointment. Although the study has important limitations we suggest that these findings might offer new directions for future research and might provide a way of unifying the specific and common factors as well as understanding the Dodo Bird effect.

Hypoxia induces no change in cutaneous thresholds for warmth and cold sensation

Hypoxia can affect perception of temperature stimuli by impeding thermoregulation at a neural level. Whether this impact on the thermoregulatory response is solely due to affected thermoregulation is not clear, since reaction time may also be affected by hypoxia. Therefore, we studied the effect of hypoxia on thermal perception thresholds for warmth and cold. Thermal perception thresholds were determined in 11 healthy overweight adult males using two methods for small nerve fibre functioning: a reaction-time inclusive method of limits (MLI) and a reaction time exclusive method of levels (MLE). The subjects were measured under normoxic and hypoxic conditions using a cross-over design. Before the thermal threshold tests under hypoxic conditions were conducted, the subjects were acclimatized by staying 14 days overnight (8 h) in a hypoxic tent system (Colorado Altitude Training: 4,000 m). For normoxic measurements the same subjects were not acclimatized, but were used to sleep in the same tent system. Measurements were performed in the early morning in the tent. Normoxic MLI cold sensation threshold decreased significantly from 30.3 ± 0.4 (mean ± SD) to 29.9 ± 0.7°C when exposed to hypoxia (P < 0.05). Similarly, mean normoxic MLI warm sensation threshold increased from 34.0 ± 0.9 to 34.5 ± 1.1°C (P < 0.05). MLE measured threshold for cutaneous cold sensation was 31.4 ± 0.4 and 31.2 ± 0.9°C under respectively normoxic and hypoxic conditions (P > 0.05). Neither was there a significant change in MLE warm threshold comparing normoxic (32.8 ± 0.9°C) with hypoxic condition (32.9 ± 1.0°C) (P > 0.05). Exposure to normobaric hypoxia induces slowing of neural activity in the sensor-to-effector pathway and does not affect cutaneous sensation threshold for either warmth or cold detection.

Quantitative Somatosensory Testing of Warm and Heat-Pain Thresholds: The Effect of Body Region and Testing Method

To study whether the sensitivity to noxious and innocuous heat varies across the body. Heat-pain threshold and warm sensation threshold were measured in 20 patients, using the Method of Limits (MLI) and the Method of Levels (MLE) in 5 regions: the chest, forearm, mid thigh, and the dorsal surface of the hand and foot. With the Method of Limits, heat-pain threshold increased gradually from the lowest level in the chest (mean 42 degrees C) to peak level in the foot (44.5 degrees C, P < 0.001). With the Method of Levels, heat-pain threshold did not differ between body regions. Warm sensation thresholds measured with both Method of Limits and the Method of Levels was higher in the chest (36.2 degrees C) and foot (36.8 degrees C) compared to the other regions (mean of 35.3 degrees C, P < 0.01). The correlation between heat-pain threshold and warm sensation threshold was low to moderate, depending on the tested region. Differences in heat-pain threshold and warm sensation threshold between the methods were highest in the legs and smallest in the chest. The correlation between the Method of Limits and Method of Levels was moderate for heat-pain threshold (0.57) and good for warm sensation threshold (0.71). The sensitivity to noxious heat is uniform across the body when measured with a reaction-time-free method (Method of Levels), but is greater in proximal than in distal regions, when measured with a reaction-time-dependent method (Method of Limits). Regardless of measuring method, the sensitivity to innocuous heat is not uniform across the body. It is concluded that the Method of Levels is preferred when heat-pain threshold is to be compared between body regions. For heat-pain threshold, within-patient comparisons can be made between each pair of regions tested. However, for warm sensation threshold, within-patient comparisons should be conducted between contralateral symmetrical regions.

A quantitative somatosensory testing of pain threshold in individuals with mental retardation

The commonly held view, mainly based on behavioral observations, is that individuals with mental retardation (MR) have a decreased sensitivity to pain. However, the sensitivity to noxious stimuli was not systematically measured in these individuals. For this purpose we developed an experimental protocol with which we trained individuals with mild MR (unspecified MR and Down's syndrome) in heat-pain threshold (HPT) measurement on the hand, and then performed the measurement using both the method of limits (MLI) which relies on reaction time (RT) and the method of levels (MLE) which is RT-free. This allowed for an indirect assessment of the RT and conduction velocity (CV) of these individuals. We found that HPT in individuals with unspecified MR (41.23±1.86 °C) and Down's syndrome (40.96±2.93 °C) was significantly lower than that of controls (42.86±2.42 °C) when measured with the MLE ( P<0.05). With the MLI no significant differences in HPT were found between the groups. However, the RT and CV values of individuals with unspecified MR and Down's syndrome were significantly lower compared to controls (e.g. mean RT of 1.86 and 2.55 compared to 1.2 s, respectively, P<0.01). From this work it would appear that individuals with MR are not only pain-sensitive, but also more sensitive to heat-pain than normal. It is suggested that computerized quantitative testing of pain threshold is feasible in individuals with MR preferably by using RT-free methods (e.g. the MLE) due to the low RT and CV values exhibited by them.

Fine-structure analysis of the odd-parity Rydberg series of Zr I

A fine-structure (fs) analysis of the odd-parity Rydberg series of atomiczirconium, including the main low-lying mutually interacting configurations, hasbeen performed for the first time, with the aid of a linked-parameter method oflevel fitting. A set of derived fs parameters, together with ab initio valuescalculated for comparison, and the leading eigenvector percentages ofthe levels were obtained. Many of the levels belonging to the 4d25s5p, 4d5s25p and4d35pconfigurations are found to be incorrectly assigned. To confirm this majorrevision, specific mass shifts deduced from experimental isotope shiftdata available in the literature have been used as fingerprints. Finally, acomplete set of predicted magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole hyperfinestructure constants has been calculated for the known odd-parity levels inzirconium.

Thermal thresholds in complex regional pain syndrome type I: sensitivity and repeatability of the methods of limits and levels

Objectives: To study whether the method of levels (MLE) or the method of limits (MLI) is preferable as a method of measuring thermal perception thresholds in patients with complex regional pain syndrome type I (CRPS I). Methods: Perception thresholds for warmth and cold were measured twice, with both MLE and MLI, at a 1 month interval, both at unaffected and affected wrists ( n=33) or feet ( n=20) of patients with CRPS I of one extremity. Results: (1) Sensitivity for pathology was equal for both methods. (2) The agreement between thresholds measured by both methods was low at all locations, except for the unaffected wrist. Since thresholds measured with the MLI always contain reaction time artefacts, this lack of agreement favours the MLE. (3) At both unaffected and affected wrists, the MLE showed significantly better coefficients of repeatability as compared to the MLI for both sensations. However, at both unaffected and affected feet, there was no preference for either method as far as threshold measurement repeatability was concerned. Conclusions: Abnormal thermal perception thresholds occurred in 20% (foot) to 36% (wrist) of the CRPS I patients on the affected side and in 15% (foot, wrist) on the unaffected side. The MLE is considered to be the preferable method to assess thermal perception thresholds in CRPS I.