Meteorological Knowledge Research Articles

Energy transfer by the atmosphere and the Southern Ocean

Our knowledge of the meteorology of the Southern Ocean depends mainly on ships’ observations, but these are limited in both number and quality. Many meteorological elements are difficult to observe from a moving ship and some, such as rainfall and snowfall, seem impossible. Nevertheless, synoptic analyses for the Southern Hemisphere are produced daily, though they cannot be analyzed as objectively as many meteorologists would like. The general features of the weather of the Southern Ocean have become clear and are well described in the literature.

Meteorological Education in Kansas

Weather is a subject of vital interest to every Kansan. Reports and forecasts by the United States Weather Bureau have helped in our understanding of its day-to-day variations, and much information on our favorable climate has been supplied by the Climatological Section of the Weather Bureau and the Kansas State Board of Agriculture (Flora, 1948). Our extensive aircraft industry and numerous air bases also constantly use meteorological information. To many people the personal loss by hail, tornadoes, dust storms, drought, lightning, and high winds overshadows the many enjoyable features of Kansas weather. The report to the State Legislature by the Kansas Water Resources Fact-Finding and Research Committee (Foley, Smrha, & Metzler, 1955) focuses attention on the current drought and the water problems accompanying it. It is understandable that some students should desire to add to our meteorological knowledge of Kansas. Where may they obtain their training? A survey was conducted in the fall of 1956 to ascertain which Kansas schools offer a program in meteorology. A questionnaire was sent to the

Summin up. Some deficiencies in current meteorological knowledge in relation to the operation of jet aircraft

Summin up. Some deficiencies in current meteorological knowledge in relation to the operation of jet aircraft

An Appraisal of Cloud Seeding as a Means of Increasing Precipitation

The results of cloud-seeding experiments are reviewed briefly and it is concluded that, taken alone, they do not constitute an adequate basis for a sound appraisal of the potentialities of the cloud seeding techniques. An attempt is made to extend and supplement the observational evidence with the aid of existing knowledge of cloud physics and synoptic meteorology. It is found that significant amounts of precipitation can fall only from clouds which are continuously replenished. It is concluded that the thermal effects of seeding are seldom sufficient to stimulate the vertical development of a cloud. Since the activation-temperatures of the artificial ice-nuclei are believed to be higher than the activation-temperatures of natural ice-nuclei there is a possibility that seeding may advance the onset of precipitation or release precipitation from clouds which do not extend to the activation-temperature of the natural ice-nuclei. It appears that the seeding of clouds which are already releasing precipitation may either decrease or increase the total precipitation; an unequivocal answer is not possible due to the lack of pertinent information regarding natural precipitation processes. On the basis of the analysis of the physical processes and general knowledge of synoptic meteorology it is concluded that it is unlikely that cloud seeding will cause large-scale effects. Further research on cloud physics and cloud seeding is recommended.

The Growth of Meteorological Knowledge of the Canadian Arctic

Historic sketch from the First International Polar Year 1882-83 to 1948, with a list giving positions, altitudes, and type of observations, of the forty-one weather reporting stations in arctic and subarctic Canada.

Results of the Air Weather Service Frontal-Analysis Numerical-Scoring Program*

A frontal-analysis numerical-scoring system employed by the Air Weather Service to obtain a more uniform frontal analysis by different forecasters working with identical data is outlined., Although the system is not a substitute for meteorological knowledge and professional experience, it serves as a means to assure the habit of adequate consideration of all factors involved in frontal analysis.

Elements of radio meteorology: how weather and climate cause unorthodox radar vision beyond the geometrical horizon

Radio refraction in the lower atmosphere often makes it possible for radar receivers to see round the curved surface of the earth and to plot targets far below the geometrical horizon. This phenomenon of super-refraction is associated with the occurrence of a radio duct, or wave guide, close to the surface of the earth. Any two points within such a duct are intervisible by refraction even though each is below the other's geometrical horizon. Field strength at one due to a transmitter at the other can therefore be of the same order of magnitude as would occur in complete free space, provided that the wavelength is sufficiently short and atmospheric attenuation is unimportant. With increase of wavelength, however, the duct (being qualitatively similar to a wave guide in the form of a metallic pipe) ceases to be able to guide the waves efficiently: for sufficiently long wavelengths propagation takes place substantially as though no duct existed. Dekametre and longer wavelengths are largely free from super-refraction because ducts sufficiently large to guide these wavelengths efficiently do not occur in the atmosphere. Centimetre waves are prone to super-refraction because ducts extending from the earth's surface up to a height of the order of 100 ft are sufficient to guide them quite efficiently and are of frequent occurrence. In its most intense form (ducts extending from the surface up to heights of a few thousand feet) efficient guiding is possible, not merely for centimetre wavelengths, but also for decimetre and metre wavelengths. In its weak form, super-refraction merely causes a decrease in attenuation beyond the horizon, particularly at centimetre wavelengths.Super-refraction is essentially a fine-weather phenomenon, and therefore tends to occur in an intense form in tropical (but not equatorial) climates. Super-refraction occurs when the upper air is unusually warm and dry in comparison with air at the surface of the earth, the associated unusual gradients of temperature and humidity being the cause of the downward refraction. Inland during fine weather, superrefraction is most noticeable at night and usually disappears during the warmest part of the day. Over the sea, super-refraction is most marked where the warm dry air of an adjacent land-mass is able to extend out over a comparatively cool sea. Only rather qualitative forecasting of super-refraction is possible with present meteorological knowledge.

電波による上空C層の觀測に就て

Since the reflection of electromagnetic waves from the lower atmosphere, including troposphere, has been first reported by Friend and Colwell of America in 1937, experiments were developed also in England and in Japan. This low reflecting layer is called C-layer and its height is estimated to range from about 30km to 1km.Recently, advanced experiments have been carried out in America, and followings can be predicted as the correlations between C-layer reflections and meteorological conditions.(1) When the cold front passes throgh the station observing C-layer, waves are reflected from the lower level, which can be attributed to the plane of discontinuity.(2) Waves are reflected from the point, where temperature inversion or marked variation of humidity takes place.(3) Scattered echos are reflected from gusty air.(4) Some correlations exist between C-layer reflections and thunder clouds.Echo patterns and continuous height records, obtained in Japan, are shown in figures 1 and 2.It is pointed out that explanation of the mechanism of reflection from C-layer is of future importance from the viewpoint of wave propagation and meteorology. It is hoped that the study of the lower atmosphere is promoted by the intimate cooperation of radio sonde, radio sounding technique and the knowledge of meteorology.

Air Masses and Fronts in South America

THE extension of regular commercial air lines in Brazil, as in other parts of the world, has been accompanied by an important increase of meteorological knowledge. During the last five years the reorganized Brazilian Meteorological Service has been gathering data on weather conditions in terms of air masses and fronts. Its network of climatological stations is still far from adequate, especially in the vast interior, and the reports from outlying observers are not all that might be wished. Nevertheless, the studies of Adalberto Serra and Leandro Ratisbonna now make possible a tentative description in modern terms of the climatic features of the South American continent. The interacting warm and cold air masses of this part of the southern hemisphere can be divided geographically into equatorial, tropical, and polar types. The source regions, lines of movement, and normal positions of the fronts can now be identified with a fair degree of certainty.

Progress in compiling and summarizing ships' weather‐observations

The first organized effort to collect weather observations from ships at sea was begun in 1841 when Lieut. Matthew F. Maury was placed in charge of the Depot of Charts and Instruments of the United States Navy. Prior to that time, however, there was some individual investigation and research. For centuries it had been customary for seamen to keep some form of record of weather‐conditions on voyages but it was not until the early part of the nineteenth century that the observations were assembled and utilized to chart the winds of the cyclonic storm and to depict other phenomena of the Earth's atmosphere. Our present knowledge of marine meteorology has in a large measure been developed during the past 100 years.

Atlantic flight and its bearings on meteorology

AbstractThe development of long‐distance air routes in recent years has necessitated the expansion of meteorological services in different countries and, in certain cases, the establishment of organised meteorological services where none existed previously. A position is thus being approached gradually in which an organised system of meteorological observations will exist over the greater part of the globe, and material for a study of world meteorology, to an extent hitherto unknown, will be available to investigators.In the case of the long trans‐ocean air routes which are projected, a special study of prevalent meteorological conditions from the point of view of aviation is necessary. The fundamental data in such cases are supplied by observations from selected ships which bridge the gaps between the fixed continental observing stations and so contribute to the world network.Certain of the meteorological problems which have arisen, owing to the proposed establishment of a regular trans‐Atlantic air service, are discussed both from the point of view of aviation requirements and also as contributing to meteorological knowledge. A brief account is also given of the organisation devised to ensure an adequate meteorological service for trans‐ocean flights.

Annual Report of the Meteorological Office

THE annual report of the Director of the Meteorological Office to the Air Council for the year ended March 31, 1933, deals with the seventy-eighth year of the Meteorological Office. Details of the work of the various branches of the Office show that requests for meteorological information have again increased substantially in number over those received in the preceding year. The reorganised forecast branch at Adastral House, Kingsway, alone dealt with nearly sixteen thousand, and the numerous local centres of the aviation branch, with more than thirty-seven thousand, without counting weather reports passed to aircraft in flight. The British climatology division disposed of more than two thousand general or scientific inquiries for particulars of past weather, many of which were required for legal purposes. The report states that the year has been one of consolidation of the numerous changes and developments of the years since the War, and that the figures quoted illustrate the general appreciation shown of the increased facilities for the provision of meteorological information that have resulted therefrom. The advancement of meteorological knowledge by research has not been neglected as a result of attention to the immediate needs of the public, a number of special investigations being carried out, for example, at Kew; the importance of the work of the expedition to Fort Rae, North West Territories, Canada, in connexion with the programme of the Second International Polar Year, has led to the inclusion of a special section giving an account of that work. This shows that success has been achieved in maintaining autographic records of the magnetic elements, of atmospheric electricity and of the more ordinary meteorological quantities, as well as in the ambitious scheme of auroral study. Although great doubt had been felt as to the chances of retrieving instruments carried by sounding balloons, several have been recovered with records reaching well into the stratosphere.

Aeronautical Meteorology

THIS revised edition supplies, in a convenient form, the kind of meteorological knowledge which is required by the airman. The author has since 1917 been in charge of the Aeronautical Division of the United States Weather Bureau, and is an acknowledged expert in upper air research. There are sections contributed by other experts on fog, ‘coiling’, and visibility, ice formation on aircraft, weather forecasting, instruments and methods of observations, airship meterology, and the Weather Bureau Airway Service.

The present state of meteorology and of meteorological knowledge

Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological SocietyVolume 51, Issue 214 p. 67-76 Article The present state of meteorology and of meteorological knowledge C. J. P. Cave M.A., C. J. P. Cave M.A. PresidentSearch for more papers by this author C. J. P. Cave M.A., C. J. P. Cave M.A. PresidentSearch for more papers by this author First published: April 1925 https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49705121402AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Volume51, Issue214April 1925Pages 67-76 RelatedInformation

Medical Climatology of England and Wales

EVERY practitioner of medicine is frequently required to recommend a climate suitable for convalescence or for a chronic disease; few doctors can acquire from experience the geographical and meteorological knowledge to enable them to give adequate consideration to this important detail of treatment. Dr. Edgar Hawkins provides a volume on the subject, based on his own experience and the information derived from numerous meteorological publications. The main arrangement of the book is geographical, therapeutic indications following the descriptions of the geology and climate of various districts and towns. There is also a separate chapter on therapeutics of the English climate, in which the classification is based on diseases. In one appendix the health resorts are tabulated according to seasonal suitability, and in the other the waters of the various Spas are described.

The Climates of the Continents

MR. KENDREW strikes new ground by giving a description of the actual climates of the regions of the world. The scope of the treatment must naturally vary with the nature of the original sources which are available, but no detailed local descriptions are attempted. A general knowledge of meteorology is assumed. There is no explanation of the omission of polar climates, north and south. Quite enough is now known of these climates to enable useful accounts to be included in a book of this sort. The oversight mars the usefulness of the volume. We notice that Mr. Kendrew adheres to the idea that the heating of north-west India furnishes an explanation of the south-west monsoon. The comparatively poor rainfall in the north-west he attributes to the previous course of the winds reaching that region, which has deprived them of much of their moisture. According to Dr. G. C. Simpson, the explanation is far more complex, and depends on several factors, of which one of importance is the dry upper-air current from the west, which prevents cloud formation in the ascending air. These and other recent theories regarding the monsoon are not discussed by Mr. Kendrew. There are many clear diagrams and maps, and numerous meteorological data. All students of geography will be grateful for this well-arranged and lucidly written volume.

Meteorology for All: Being some Weather Problems Explained

THE science of the weather may well make a wider appeal than any other branch of science, and the opening for a book which is not only scientifically accurate, but also simple and easily comprehended, is therefore very great. The author of the present work has realised that the opening exists, and has endeavoured to fill it, but his attempt can scarcely be considered successful. A few quotations will illustrate the nature of the book. In estimating cloud amounts on the scale 0-10 we are told that "if there is one cloud upon the horizon or in any part of the sky we put 1."For obtaining true bearings from a compass, “the magnetic variation in the British Isles is now 14°W.” Again: “There is no more sure precursor of a gale than the ‘wind-dog,’ or coloured parhelion” (p. 2), which may possess some degree of truth, but scarcely seems compatible with: “When these halos are coloured and accompanied by parhelia or mock suns, they generlly precede very dry weather” (p. 110). Even in such a simple matter as giving the equivalent velocities of the Beaufort numbers, the author falls into error. Some chapters are better than others, but the book can certainly not be recommended as a safe guide to put into the hands of the non-technical reader without previous knowledge of meteorology. Meteorology for All: Being some Weather Problems Explained. Dr. Donald W. Horner By. With an Introduction by M. de Carle S. Salter. Pp. xvi + 184 + vii plates. (London: Witherby and Co., 1919.) Price 6s. net.

Scientific Research in Aeronautical Problems

The bearing of pure scientific research on practical scientific developments has been demonstrated again and again ; and interesting and valuable as are all aeronautical attempts, it is more than probable that the solution of flight and aerial navigation may be achieved after all by the physicist or the meteorologist. Just now, this thought is borne in on us by the physical experiments to determine the resistance of the air of M. L'Abbé Le Dantic and M. Canovetti, and by the publication of the annual bulletin of the Meteorological Commission of the Bouches du Rhône. There are some observations in this of the direction, frequency, and force of the wind made at the Marseilles Observatory at the height of 75 m. Such observations are preliminary steps to a meteorological knowledge of the conditions of the lower and upper atmospheres essential to the making of any seasonal maps of the winds; without such maps many practical aeronauts who look to utilising the wind forces for the purposes of motion consider aerial navigation doomed to remain empirical.

Grundlinien der maritimen Meteorologie

THIS little work serves two purposes; it is practically a concise elementary meteorology, and a guide for the use of sailors, showing the best routes in the different oceans, with directions for the management of vessels in storms, especially the dangerous West India hurricanes and the typhoons of the China seas. Dr. Köppen has been known for many years as one of the most prominent meteorologists, and having access to the large amount of materials collected by the Deutsche Seewarte, we might expect to find the result of his long experience embodied in a useful and an attractive form. The work meets our expectations in every way; all details which are unnecessary for the object in view have been carefully excluded, while all technical and nautical expressions are fully explained, so that the work, which is specially written for seamen, may be read with interest and advantage by all who are desirous of obtaining a knowledge of maritime meteorology. His treatment of the subject includes the general circulation of the atmosphere, as well as the movements of waves, tides and ocean currents, and the value of the treatise is much enhanced by explanatory figures in the text and by separate charts and diagrams.

The Possibilities of Long-Range Weather Forecasts1

IF we had perfect command of this subject, we should be able to trace the motion of a particle of aqueous vapour from point to point over the whole earth, and could predict whether at any time in the future it will fall as rain, or rise and fly away as an invisible gas. In the absence of this higher knowledge the only long-range forecasts that we are at present able to make are based upon empirical and very imperfect rules deduced from our study of the accumulated climatological statistics. Of course, such predictions do not imply any special knowledge of meteorology. Among the methods adopted in long-range forecasts are the following: