Metaphysical Issues Research Articles

Necessitism, Contingentism, and Theory Equivalence

AbstractNecessitism, Contingentism, and Theory Equivalence is a dissertation on issues in higher-order modal metaphysics. Consider a modal higher-order language with identity in which the universal quantifier is interpreted as expressing (unrestricted) universal quantification and the necessity operator is interpreted as expressing metaphysical necessity. The main question addressed in the dissertation concerns the correct theory formulated in this language. A different question that also takes centre stage in the dissertation is what it takes for theories to be equivalent.The whole dissertation consists of an extended argument in defence of the (joint) truth of two seemingly inconsistent higher-order modal theories, specifically: 1.Plantingan Moderate Contingentism, a theory based on Plantinga’s [1] modal metaphysics that is committed to, among other things, the contingent being of some individuals and the necessary being of all possible higher-order entities;2.Williamsonian Thorough Necessitism, a theory advocated by Williamson [3] which is committed to, among other things, the necessary being of every possible individual as well as of every possible higher-order entity.Part of the case for these theories’ joint truth relies on defences of the following metaphysical theses: (i) Thorough Serious Actualism, the thesis that no things could have been related while being nothing, and (ii) Higher-Order Necessitism, the thesis that necessarily, every higher-order entity is necessarily something. It is shown that Thorough Serious Actualism and Higher-Order Necessitism are both implicit commitments of very weak logical theories. The defence of Higher-Order Necessitism constitutes a powerful challenge to Stalnaker’s [2] Thorough Contingentism, a theory committed to, among other things, the view that there could have been some individuals as well as some entities of any higher-order that could have been nothing.In the dissertation it is argued that Plantingan Moderate Contingentism and Williamsonian Thorough Necessitism are in fact equivalent, even if they appear to be jointly inconsistent. The case for this claim relies on the Synonymy account, a novel account of theory equivalence developed and defended in the dissertation. According to this account, theories are equivalent just in case they have the same commitments and conception of logical space.By way of defending the Synonymy account’s adequacy, the account is applied to the debate between noneists, proponents of the view that some things do not exist, and Quineans, proponents of the view that to exist just is to be some thing. The Synonymy account is shown to afford a more nuanced and better understanding of that debate by revealing that what noneists and Quineans are really disagreeing about is what expressive resources are available to appropriately describe the world.By coupling a metatheoretical result with tools from the philosophy of language, it is argued that Plantingan Moderate Contingentism and Williamsonian Thorough Necessitism are synonymous theories, and so, by the lights of the Synonymy account, equivalent. Given the defence of their extant commitments made in the dissertation, it is concluded that Plantingan Moderate Contingentism and Williamsonian Thorough Necessitism are both correct. A corollary of this result is that the dispute between Plantingans and Williamsonians is, in an important sense, merely verbal. For if two theories are equivalent, then they “require the same of the world for their truth.”Thus, the results of the dissertation reveal that if one speaks as a Plantingan while advocating Plantingan Moderate Contingentism, or as a Williamsonian while advocating Williamsonian Thorough Necessitism, then one will not go wrong. Notwithstanding, one will still go wrong if one speaks as a Plantingan while advocating Williamsonian Thorough Necessitism, or as a Williamsonian while advocating Plantingan Moderate Contingentism.On the basis of a conception of the individual constants and predicates of second-order modal languages as strongly Millian, i.e., as having actually existing entities as their semantic values, in the appendix are presented second-order modal logics consistent with Stalnaker’s Thorough Contingentism. Furthermore, it is shown there that these logics are strong enough for applications of higher-order modal logic in mathematics, a result that constitutes a reply to an argument to the contrary by Williamson [3]. Finally, these logics are proven to be complete relative to particular “thoroughly contingentist” classes of models.

Dualistic Vision in Virginia Woolf’s The Waves

Abstract The article focuses on Virginia Woolf’s novel, The Waves, a sui generis work, in which the writer explores metaphysical and epistemological issues such as the meaning of selfhood, time and identity as flux, silence and language, the self as defined by language, and other fundamental concerns. These topics are explored through a dualistic perspective. This duality permeates the entire structure of the novel through binary oppositions: the self as one/the self as plural; the lyrical/the novelistic; the mystical/the rational; narrative/formlessness; the embodied/the disembodied; potentiality/actuality; language/silence. Woolf’s ambivalent approach is also at work in the way she uses language in the novel. The urge towards a teleological existence prompts her characters to turn events into a narrative that would arrange and combine them into one thread. The present article, however, shows that in The Waves the very human propensity to turn experience into a coherent story is countered by the opposite perception that this narrativizing drive is only an illusion.

Mark Harris as a Naturalistic Theist: The Perspective of the Model of Levels of Analysis

Presently, naturalistic theism is the dominant position in the debate on the relation between science and religion, defending a thesis that the conflict between science and religion is only an apparent one. Also, this version of theism accepts the naturalist assumptions behind contemporary science and attempts to reformulate the beliefs held within the traditional Christian theism in order to present the religious view of reality as not conflicting with the scientific picture of the world. Certain assumptions behind Mark Harris’s views on the relations between science and religion can be described as consistent with naturalistic theism. The model of levels of analysis helps to analyze the most important themes found within naturalistic theism and show how these are described in the works of Harris. The model facilitates the identification of the relations between particular kinds of assumptions behind the position taken from the point of view of naturalistic theism in the debate on the relation between science and religion. The list of most frequently recurring assumptions — that are also important in Harris’s writings — include: the general division of epistemic competence, which assumes theology (religion) to be competent in dealing with the metaphysical issues (Levels 1 and 2) and science to be the only one competent to deliver the empirical statements describing processes and entities found within the empirical sphere (Levels 4 and 5); the acceptance of the naturalistic assumptions behind contemporary science (Level 2) and skepticism toward the religious notions found in the traditional Christian theism describing supernatural interventions and toward the dualist interpretation of human soul (Level 3). This leads to the acceptance of purely scientific, naturalistic, explanations of the events found within the empirical sphere and to skepticism toward the literal meaning of descriptions of empirical events (Level 5) that are not consistent with the anti-interventionist assumptions behind science. Harris’s acceptance of naturalistic theism in terms of the relation between science and religion and his use of the techniques found in the modern biblical scholarship have led him to the ideas of plurality of meanings and the lack of one definite truth with respect to the specific issues he deals with. From the point of view of MLA it is the rejection of super-naturalistic assumptions of the traditional Christian theism and the acceptance of the naturalistic assumptions of science that seems to be the cause of lack of definite truth in his theological explanations.

Current Problems of Teaching Philosophical Disciplines in Educational Institutions of Slovak Republic

The paper is a brief mapping of the situation in the field of didactics of philosophy in the Slovak Republic. We observe that, despite almost three decades of separation of official philosophy from the dominance of Marxist philosophy, there is no satisfactory basis for the didactics of philosophy. The discipline Didactics of philosophy is represented by improvising several enthusiasts instead of developing serious theoretical foundations. We try to post a few recommendations that belong to all who want to seriously deal with the didactics of philosophy. The most important of them is the establishment of the Slovak scientific journal of didactics, the establishment of the organization of trade didactics, the separation of philosophy from other core subjects and the accreditation of the third level of university education in didactics of philosophy. The author convincingly proves the need to introduce knowledge of philosophy in school, since it will help teach students to think better, apply knowledge more effectively, critically evaluate everyday life, including relationships with parents, teachers, classmates and others. The article emphasizes that the experience of philosophizing will allow students to express their thoughts in writing, as well as to explore at an accessible level “eternal” issues of metaphysics, epistemology, natural philosophy, philosophy of history, philosophy of culture, philosophy of law, philosophical anthropology. philosophy of politics, etc. The urgency of impoving the teacher's competence in teaching this subject at school, in particular, updating the methodological support, substantiation of educational innovations for the use in the study of philosophy, as well as the introduction of ICT in the educational process are substantiated.

Metaphysics of Reality: Pragmatico-Analytic Interpretation of Wittgenstein's Philosophical Approach

The article examines Ludwig Wittgenstein’s views on the world and human beings in it. It is emphasized that the philosopher, in addition to paying a lot of attention to the study of language, which determined the basis of his method of cognition, followed a number of worldview ideas about reality. They were supported by the achievements of physics of that time, although Wittgenstein himself argued that the study of reality is not possible without understanding the metaphysical issues concerning the unspeakable, supernatural, spiritual, and so on. It shows how Wittgenstein interpreted the world and reality, distinguished between different levels of being, studied logical atoms, not laws, analyzed facts, not things, comprehended not only the macrocosm but also the microcosm, and as a result built a pragmatic ontological-cosmological conception, in which humans and the way of their being in the world occupied a significant place.

Artifacts and affordances: from designed properties to possibilities for action

In this paper I critically evaluate the value neutrality thesis regarding technology, and find it wanting. I then introduce the various ways in which artifacts can come to influence moral value, and our evaluation of moral situations and actions. Here, following van de Poel and Kroes, I introduce the idea of value sensitive design. Specifically, I show how by virtue of their designed properties, artifacts may come to embody values. Such accounts, however, have several shortcomings. In agreement with Michael Klenk, I raise epistemic and metaphysical issues with respect to designed properties embodying value. The concept of an affordance, borrowed from ecological psychology, provides a more philosophically fruitful grounding to the potential way(s) in which artifacts might embody values. This is due to the way in which it incorporates key insights from perception more generally, and how we go about determining possibilities for action in our environment specifically. The affordance account as it is presented by Klenk, however, is insufficient. I therefore argue that we understand affordances based on whether they are meaningful, and, secondly, that we grade them based on their force.

What is it to be located?

The literature suggests two main answers to the question of what it is for a material object to be located at a region of spacetime. Both have a number of virtues. However, both suffer from well-known problems. According to one answer, location is a primitive relation with no informative metaphysical analysis. But this makes a number of necessary truths seem mysterious and leaves them unexplained. According to the other answer, to be located at a region is just to be identical to that region. But this is inconsistent with a number of independently plausible theses about material objects and their locations. In this paper, I explore a new theory of location and argue that it has the virtues of these familiar theories but not their vices. I then explore some further connections the new theory has with some contemporary issues in metaphysics.

Can There Be a Philosophy of Medicine Without a Patient? Should There Be?

The philosophy of medicine has had a long and somewhat problematic history, going back to Hippocrates and Galen. As recently as 30 years ago, bioethicist Arthur Caplan (1992) raised doubts about its existence as a distinct subject matter. These doubts have now been widely allayed. Journal articles, books, companions, and handbooks in the area are quite numerous today. Recently, two single-author introductions to the subject have been published: Alex Broadbent's Philosophy of Medicine (2019) and Jacob Stegenga's Care and Cure: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Medicine (2018a). Both authors write from the perspective of analytic philosophy, with an emphasis on issues in metaphysics, epistemology, and the philosophy of science as they relate to medicine. One of the issues addressed in both books, medical nihilism, is treated in much more detail in Jacob Stegenga's Medical Nihilism (2018b), and it will be considered briefly in this essay. After a short overview of the subject, this essay will offer a brief summary of each of the two introductions. The essay concludes with observations about the subject matter itself, as well as suggestions for the two authors.

Fais comme tu veux : la libération par la délibération

Do What You Want: When Deliberation Means Liberation. The ongoing debate about free will in cognitive neuroscience, which started with the first experiments on the timing of mental and cerebral events, has been focused on whether the feeling of exerting conscious volition can be causally responsible of elementary movements such as moving the index finger. While the metaphysical issue is not solved, there is a consensus about the dissociation between neural processes that cause movements and those that generate the impression of free volition. This paper reviews empirical arguments in favor of a similar departure, regarding more elaborate decisions that involve subjective preferences, between actual causes of choices and reasons advanced for their justification. Indeed, the literature on decision bias shows that reasons are often elaborated post-hoc, to align choices on coherent norms that their real causes may not respect. It thus becomes clear that the functional architecture of the brain, shaped by natural selection, imposes hidden constraints on preferences, which may vary across individuals, or across time in a same individual. It has also been observed that particular choices do not always follow general preferences, which is formalized as random variations in decision-making models, but likely reflects incomplete knowledge of the brain system. However, as neural constraints are progressively uncovered, we can incorporate them into deliberation, hence emancipate from automatic compulsions, and therefore win some degrees of freedom.

ФЕМІНІСТИЧНИЙ ДИСКУРС ЖІНОЧОЇ ПОЕЗІЇ «МОЛОДОЇ ПОЛЬЩІ»

In the XIX-XX centuries. the emancipation of women had a strong influence on the established order of society. It was most evident in the works of contemporary writers. The article explores a little-known topic of women’s poetry of the literary period of Young Poland. The article analyzes the thematic range, issues and corporeality of poetry of Bronislava Ostrovska, Maryla Volska, Marcelina Kulikovska, Maria Komornitska and others. The essay examines the work of these women writers in the projection of the active development of feminist discourse through the prism of socio-political, cultural and gender characteristics. In women’s poetry of Young Poland there are recurring thematic areas, especially marked by corporeality and sensuality, such as love and erotica, motherhood, old age, disease and pain, the experience of death, the body also directs and profiles issues of creativity, sacred, metaphysics and cultural change. Particular attention needs to be paid to women’s experiences, which consist in the expansion of biology or the feeling of sexuality (pregnancy, childbirth), which became the discovery and description of the first half of the last century, referred to as the process of feminization of culture. They not only imitated contemporary poets, but also made a significant contribution to the development of the symbolic coordinates of this period. Their poetry is also characterized by decadent, impressionistic and expressionist motives. Female poets turned to popular topics for the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, such as love, nature, the meaning of existence, escape from reality, feelings of powerlessness and more. But they were not limited to philosophical and landscape lyrics. Further research on the creative path of poets of the Young Poland period is very promising, because they were not only active participants in the literary pro- cess, but also influenced future generations of Polish poets, who, following their example, developed themes of women’s experience, sensuality and corporeality in their work. These literary figures are also interesting for Ukrainian literary criticism, because some of the mentioned poets lived for some time in Lviv, Kyiv and Kharkiv, and therefore, intertwined with the Ukrainian literary process.

Этика без теории? О преимуществах пирронического образа жизни перед догматическим

The paper discusses two interrelated problems pertaining to the Pyrrhonian way of life. We try to rise to the challenge and play devil’s advocate, arguing from the skeptical point of view. The first part portrays a reconstruction of central skeptical arguments against the dogmatic ethics that attack some epistemological, metaphysical and ethical issues of the central dogmatic concept “the good by nature”. The second part considers the arguments suggested by G. Striker and R. Bett who claim that the sceptic cannot have ethics nor be an ethical agent. Against it, we try to formulate minimal conditions for ethics without theory, namely, the conceptual ability to distinguish between “right” and “wrong” actions grounded upon the notion of “private good” and the skeptical criteria for actions. This is made possible by relativizing the criteria of the ethical and connecting it with the customs and traditions of a given community. Though Pyrrhonism is quite different from ethical relativism or ethical realism, a striking comparison to H. Putnam’s ethical approach is drawn at the end of the paper.

Leibniz’s Appropriation of Spinoza’s Argument against Mind-Body Causation

In a 1687 letter to Arnauld, Leibniz draws on an argument against mind-body causation that is reminiscent of one from Spinoza’s Ethics. According to this argument, mind-body causation is impossible because of the lack of proportion between thoughts and motions. This paper aims to shed light on Leibniz’s use of Spinoza’s argument by reconstructing both its internal structure and its development in Leibniz’s later works. In particular, the reconstruction focuses on the new version of this argument that Leibniz adopts against Stahl’s vitalism as well as on the change that this new version reveals in Leibniz’s attitude towards occasionalism. The possible influence of Cordemoy is also taken into consideration. The epistemological and metaphysical issues surrounding this argument are an essential part of the history of Leibniz’s psycho-physical parallelism.

Этикоонтология в буддизме тхеравады: дискуссия о «благом поступке» и «дурном поступке» в «Катхаваттху» I.1.200–I.1.216

This article focuses on the development of ethical issues in early Buddhism. The author focuses on the concepts “good deed” (kālyana-kamma) and “bad deed” (pāpa-kamma). These concepts are discussed in the text “The Section on Ethical Goodness” from “The Points of Discpute” (Kathāvaththu). The article begins with a brief description of “Points of Discpute”. The author then analyzes the semantics of the concepts of good and evil in early Buddhism. Beside therms kālyana – pāpa, a pair of concepts kusala – akusala is used in early Buddhist philosophy. The author concludes that the concepts kusala – akusala are used in later Buddhist texts and their use is more regular. The main part of the article is an analysis of the “The Section on Ethical Goodness”. Using specific examples, the discussion techniques characteristic of the Kathāvattu are revealed: interrogation, repetition and reduction to absurdity. It is demonstrated that scrutinizing of ethical topics in the Buddhist text cannot be separated from solving of metaphysical issues, that of the existence of the substantial doer besides deeds being most important one. Just this issue proved fundamental in discordance in opinions between the orthodox Buddhism of the therāvada school and heterodox lines of the puggalavāda. Attached is the first Russian translation from Pali of sections I.1.200, I.1.201, I.1.212 from Kathāvaththu text of the Abhidhamma-piţaka.

Not without Skepticism: Metaphysics as a Metacritical Task of Theology

This essay explores the necessity of and limits of metaphysical thought, as well as theology’s necessary interaction with metaphysics. Metaphysics’ origin came through opposition to mythology, with which metaphysics is also intricately connected. Christian theology has a critical, but necessary, relationship with both. Metaphysics provides intellectual unity in the face of the diversity of human experience, which couples nicely with the mythological pantheon of gods. Aristotle’s Metaphysics equated the divine with the unifying foundation of all things (ἀρχή). Metaphysics brings order to the world’s chaos with a divinity that is not a subject, but a (neuter) predicate. Metaphysical questioning is necessary to human self-preservation but becomes problematic if divorced from other aspects of lived existence. Scripture itself raises metaphysical issues with its claims of God’s oneness.

Seeing God: The Beatific Vision in Christian Tradition by Hans Boersma

Reviewed by: Seeing God: The Beatific Vision in Christian Tradition by Hans Boersma Elizabeth A. Huddleston Seeing God: The Beatific Vision in Christian Tradition by Hans Boersma (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2018), xx + 467 pp. Hans Boersma's project over the past decade or so has largely been to establish a theology of what he calls "sacramental ontology." Seeing God: The Beatific Vision in Christian Tradition is an excellent addition to this ongoing project. In this book, Boersma advocates for a "sacramental understanding of the beatific vision" that "takes seriously the teleological character of history" (10). At the onset Boersma makes the point that our teleological "gaze," so to speak, needs to shift from the spatial or vertical metaphor to a more horizontal or temporal metaphor in which "we anticipate seeing God at the end of our lives and, particularly, at the end of history" (10). This metaphor, Boersma argues, more accurately demonstrates that "the telos or purpose of our lives is the vision of God (visio Dei) in Christ" (10). Thus, "we could interpret life as a pilgrimage to a sacred place and … treat history as an apprenticeship that aims at acquiring a skill" (10). In order to shift this metaphor, Boersma does not simply "rehearse in any detail the Catholic debate surrounding the supernatural" (11). Rather, he goes "beyond the broader metaphysical issue of the sacramental relationship between nature and the supernatural to the question of what it means to conceive of the beatific vision sacramentally" (11). The primary question Boersma asks is: "If the beatific vision is our ultimate telos, then how does [End Page 987] God's economy," or as he deems it in the last chapter, "God's pedagogy," work in line with our ultimate end? (11–12). Boersma concludes that "just as the pilgrims would sing the Songs of Ascent (Pss. 120–134) on their pilgrimage to Jerusalem, so we contemplate Christ in anticipation of the face-to-face vision of God in Christ. A truly sacramental understanding of the beatific vision, therefore, points us to the recognition of the real presence of Christ already in this life, in anticipation of the beatific vision of God in the hereafter" (13–14, emphasis original). This book is divided into four parts, which are primarily organized chronologically. Part 4 breaks from the strict chronological presentation in order to propose a "dogmatic appraisal" of our conception of the beatific vision in light of the previous three chapters. While this book is not intended to be a historical analysis of a particular idea per se, Boersma does a good job of grounding his argument historically, as well as tracing the idea of the beatific vision within the greater Christian tradition. The introduction and first chapter introduce the contemporary context for Boersma's appraisal of the doctrine of the beatific vision. He begins his book with the questions, "Why beatific vision?" and "Why make the claim that seeing God is the purpose of our life?" (1). Calling specifically upon the metaphor found in Christian tradition of the beatific vision as the telos of human life, Boersma explains that the metaphor of "seeing God" is found in Scripture, which influences a "system of analogies" (spirals) that point to Christ as the archetypical "sacramental reality (res) in which the various historical events (the types) inhere or participate as sacraments (sacramenta)" (9). Paraphrasing Edward Pusey, Boersma explains that "Christ—who is in his person the embodiment of the eternal Word or Son of God—is the sacramental reality (res) in which sacramental types (sacramenta) find their truth or identity" (9). Part 1, "Beatific Vision in Early Christian Thought," begins with chapter 2 and focuses on the Platonic and neo-Platonic roots of early Christian theologies of the beatific vision. Chapter 2, "Philosophy and Vision," looks at how Plato and Plotinus help to set the philosophical stage for early Christian theological exploration into the nature of seeing divine beauty and virtue. Chapter 3, "Progress and Vision," is dedicated to Gregory of Nyssa's notion of spiritual progress in his Homilies on the Beatitudes, The Life of Moses, and Homilies on the Song of Songs. Chapter 4, "Anticipation and Vision...

Why literalism is still the best game in town: Replies to Drayson, Machery, and Schwitzgebel

I respond to the main criticisms raised by Schwitzgebel, Machery, and Drayson of the main arguments of Pieces of mind in favor of the position I call literalism. Schwitzgebel's mainly supportive commentary decries the Cartesian assumption that mindedness is an all or nothing affair. Machery claims that there is an alternative to literalism that is a better interpretation of the uses of psychological predicates across species. Drayson argues that literalism is mistaken on a number of fundamental metaphysical issues. I conclude that literalism emerges even stronger as a result of confronting their excellent criticisms.

Nathaniel Hawthorne in Context, by Elbert, Monika M., editor.

<i>Nathaniel Hawthorne in Context</i>, by Elbert, Monika M., editor.

Crucified with Christ: The &lt;i&gt;Ego&lt;/i&gt; and the &lt;i&gt;Omega&lt;/i&gt;

In the second chapter to his Galatians letter, Paul makes some striking statements. He says that he has been “crucified with Christ,” and indeed that he no longer lives but that Christ lives “in” him. Such claims raise fascinating exegetical and metaphysical issues that are important for theology. Just who is this “I”, and what is the relation of this “I” to Christ? How are we to understand union with Christ – indeed, is the relation spoken of here something stronger than mere union? Is it identity? In this essay, I offer an analytic engagement with traditional and more recent “apocalyptic” interpretations of this passage, and I argue that a traditional account is preferable.

Preserving Destruction: Philosophical Issues of Urban Geosites

AbstractThis article examines the philosophical issues that arise when preserving urban geological sites or urban geosites. These are preserved not only because of their geological value but also because of aesthetic, cultural, and economic reasons. To do so, it examines the geosite constituted by Olot and its surroundings, a city in Spain that extends amid four dormant volcanoes. It explores the metaphysical paradox that these geosites have become what they are due to the preservation of destruction: human-caused interventions, mostly extraction of materials and exploitation of the land, are precisely what made these geosites visible as sites worth preserving and determining their metaphysical status. It further explores the preservation criteria and shows how they have determined the status of the geosite. Second, it shows how in such urban geosites the collapse of two diametrically opposed conceptions of time – the geological eon and the lived human time – occurs. Lastly, it discusses aesthetic aspects of such geosites by considering aesthetic experience as a primarily cognitive endeavor and shows how metaphysical, epistemological, and aesthetic issues of preservation of geosites are inextricably linked.

The Life and Philosophy of Elizabeth Anscombe

No initiative has made so significant a contribution to the posterity of Elizabeth Anscombe as the series ‘St Andrews Studies in Philosophy and Public Affairs’. Besides four collections of essays by Anscombe, published between 2005 and 2015, it has issued two collections of essays by eminent philosophers on Anscombe. The first of these, published in 2016, concerned her writings on moral philosophy, and it is now followed by a complementary volume ‘more addressed’, according to John Haldane's preface, ‘to issues in mind and metaphysics’ (p. ix). It is worth noting that, of the fifteen essays that compose the volume, only Anselm Müller's had not appeared previously, Guy Rohrbaugh's having been published in Noûs (vol. 48 (4), 2014), Ulf Hlobil and Katharina Nieswandt's having been published in Klesis (vol. 35, 2016), and the remaining eleven in a special issue of the American Catholic Philosophical Quarterly (90 (2), 2016). This helps to explain the existence of some degree of discrepancy between the volume's title and its contents, i.e., instead of covering the whole range of the philosophical interests Anscombe held throughout her life, it should be more addressed to two of her particular areas of interest, for such discrepancy is a natural result of the volume having come post res.