Characteristics Of Mesoscale Eddies Research Articles

Spatiotemporal characteristics of mesoscale eddies in the South China Sea and the influence mechanism of Eddy Kinetic Energy

This paper uses 28 years of satellite altimeter fusion data from 1993 to 2020 to identify and track the mesoscale eddies in the South China Sea based on the Sea Level Anomaly (SLA) closed contour method, with the goal of improving our overall understanding of mesoscale eddy activities in the South China Sea and further investigating the ocean dynamic processes in the region, so as to provide fundamental data for climate change studies. The study examined the spatiotemporal distribution, generation and demise, and movement trajectories of the eddies. Furthermore, key parameters including velocity, vortex radius, amplitude and Eddy Kinetic Energy (EKE) were analyzed, with a particular emphasis on the seasonal changes and mechanisms that influence EKE in two areas of the South China Sea with high energy values. The South China Sea has more cyclonic eddies than anticyclonic eddies, according to the study, and its eastern region is primarily home to high-frequency generating areas. However, the majority of the vortices will eventually dissipate in the western and central areas of the South China Sea. Furthermore, vortices usually flow farther to the west. With decreasing latitude, the eddy radius and EKE distribution gradually increase, whereas the amplitude is contrary. EKE is caused by the interaction of factors including wind field driving, seawater movement, and circulation. Seasonal changes in the EKE occur near the Luzon Strait, and the sea area east of the south in Vietnam exhibits clear characteristics.

Characteristics and generation mechanisms of anticyclonic eddies, cyclonic eddies and dipole eddies in the Mozambique Channel

The discovery of cyclonic and dipole eddies in the Mozambique Channel (MC) indicates that the understanding of the mesoscale eddy characteristics in the MC is incomplete. The distributions of anticyclonic, cyclonic, and dipole eddies along the MC were elucidated in this study using satellite observations. It was observed that these eddies exhibit a preference for emergence and movement in the western MC. The occurrence frequencies of anticyclonic and cyclonic eddies are four and three times per year, respectively, in the narrowest section of the MC. In contrast, the frequency of mesoscale eddies reaches its peak at nine times per year in the central region of the MC. The occurrence of dipole eddies also reaches its peak twice per year in the middle MC. Dipole eddies are more prevalent in the MC and exhibit larger dimensions and shorter lifespans compared to anticyclonic and cyclonic eddies. Mesoscale eddies, which traverse the narrowest section of the MC and propagate southward, are predominantly generated within the western Comoros Basin due to barotropic instability. The southward branch of the Northeast Madagascar Current (NEMC) plays a crucial role in transporting these eddies to the middle MC. The eastern middle MC is also a generation site for mesoscale eddies in addition to the Comoros Basin, where cyclonic eddies are generated twice per year. These cyclonic eddies are also generated due to barotropic instability.

Characteristics of mesoscale eddies in the Mozambique Channel.

The mesoscale eddy characteristics of the Mozambique Warm Current were investigated by detecting and tracking satellite altimetry data from 2010 to 2019. A total of 1,086 eddies were identified in the Mozambique Channel, comprising 509 cyclonic eddies and 577 anticyclonic eddies. The results revealed that the bay area on the northwest coast of Madagascar was the main hotspot of eddy generation, and the mean amplitude and radius of the anticyclonic eddies in the Mozambique Channel were 24.23 cm and 82.7 km, respectively, which are larger than those of the cyclonic eddies. Local wind forcing had a significant impact on the formation of mesoscale eddies in the Mozambique Channel. In winter, the wind stress in the northern and southern areas of the Mozambique Channel exhibited a strong correlation with the distribution of eddy kinetic energy (EKE), where both monsoonal winds in the north and trade winds in the south could facilitate mesoscale anticyclonic eddy formation. In addition, the variability in the number of anticyclonic and cyclonic eddies in the Mozambique Channel may have exerted a significant influence on the seasonal anomalous fluctuations in local sea surface temperatures (SSTs). This study presented a novel analysis of the mesoscale eddy characteristics in the Mozambique Channel.

Statistical Analysis of Mesoscale Eddy Characteristics in the northwestern Pacific Ocean

In this paper, the mesoscale eddy data set established by Professor Chelton in Oregon State University is used to analyse the statistical characteristics of mesoscale eddies in the Northwest Pacific Ocean. Mesoscale eddies in this region are divided into short-lived, Mid-lived, and long-lived eddies according to their life cycle with the aim of exploring the characteristics of eddies with different life cycles. Those with a life cycle of less than 6 weeks, 6-9 weeks, and more than 9 weeks are defined as short-lived eddies, mid-lived eddies, and long-lived eddies, respectively. The results show that most of the eddies are short lived eddies with a lifetime of 6 weeks or less. Both short-lived eddies and Mid-lived eddies have more cyclonic eddies than anticyclonic eddies. But long-lived eddies have more anticyclonic eddies than cyclonic eddies. In addition, the number of short-lived eddies in the Subtropical Ocean is more than those in the Kuroshio Extension, while the number of long-lived eddies is the opposite.

Characteristics of mesoscale eddies and their evolution in the north Indian ocean

Mesoscale eddies are ubiquitous in the oceans and play a significant role in setting the turbulence, transporting momentum, heat, salinity, and nutrients from their formation site to the place of dissipation, and controlling biogeochemical processes and air-sea exchanges. Using satellite-measured daily sea level anomaly from 1993 to 2021, we studied statistical characteristics of mesoscale eddies in the north Indian Ocean. The procedure uses information on the vorticity vector, Okubo-Weiss velocity gradient tensor and its threshold, and Lagrange transport. The continental margin of the Arabian Sea (AS) with its western and northeastern flanks, the mouth of the Gulf of Aden, the Lakshadweep Sea, the western margin of the Bay of Bengal (BOB), and the Andaman Sea have been depicted as the hotspot regions. The occurrence of cyclonic eddies (CEs) and anticyclonic eddies (AEs) are comparable in numbers with similar probability distribution as a function of their lifetime in AS and BOB at the basin scale and differ significantly in the regional domains. CEs dominate over AEs during monsoon and post-monsoon periods in the AS and during January-August in the BOB. In contrast, AEs are prominent in the great whirl (GW) during the monsoon period, and the EICC exhibits their peaks in March, July and November. Among the total observed eddies during the study period, 87 % of which are short-lived (<30 days), 10 % are moderately lived (30–60 days), and 3 % are long-lived (>60 days). Eddies are smaller and less energetic, with longer life in the higher latitudes than the lower latitudes. The frequency of eddies exhibits distinct seasonal variability with preferred periods during May-August and November-March, respectively, for their occurrence in AS and BOB. They also show significant inter-annual oscillations and decreasing trends on the background of the weak boundary currents.

Impact of greenhouse warming on mesoscale eddy characteristics in high-resolution climate simulations

Mesoscale eddies are prevalent throughout the global ocean and have significant implications on the exchange of heat, salt, volume, and biogeochemical properties. These small-scale features can potentially influence regional and global climate systems. However, the effects of climate change on ocean eddies remain uncertain due to limited long-term observational data. To address this knowledge gap, our study focuses on examining the impact of greenhouse warming on surface mesoscale eddy characteristics, utilizing a high-resolution climate simulation project. Our model experiments provided valuable insights into the potential effects of greenhouse warming on mesoscale eddies, suggesting that mesoscale eddies will likely become more frequent under greenhouse warming conditions and exhibit larger amplitudes and radii, especially in regions characterized by strong ocean currents such as the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and western boundary currents. However, a distinctive pattern emerged in the Gulf Stream, with increases in eddy occurrence and radius and significant decreases in eddy amplitude. This phenomenon can be attributed to the relationship between eddy lifespans and their properties. Specifically, in the Kuroshio Current, the amplitude of eddies increased due to the increased occurrence of long-lived eddies. In contrast, in the Gulf Stream, the amplitude of eddies decreased significantly due to the decreased occurrence of long-lived eddies. This distinction arises from the fact that long-lived eddies can accumulate more energy than shorter-lived eddies throughout their lifetime. These findings provide valuable insights into the complex dynamics of mesoscale eddies in a warming world.

Three-dimensional characteristics of mesoscale eddies in the western boundary current region of the Bay of Bengal using ROMS-NPZD

Eddies play an important role in transporting and redistributing the heat, salt, and biological parameters in the global ocean. In this study, three-dimensional physio-biochemical characteristics of an anticyclonic (AE) and a cyclonic eddy (CE) associated with the poleward western boundary current (WBC) in the Bay of Bengal (BoB) are analyzed using a coupled bio-physical ocean model (ROMS-NPZD). Due to eddy-induced upwelling (downwelling) associated with the CE (AE), monopole patterns of temperature and salinity anomaly around the eddy center are occurred with extremum values at 100 – 150 m and 50 – 100 m depth, respectively. The upward (downward) curvature with a tip at eddy centers is observed in the isothermal layer depth, 20℃ isotherm (D20) nutricline, and oxycline. The depth of D20 deepens and shallows at the center from the edge by ∼60 m and ∼40 m for AE and CE, respectively. A relatively thick barrier layer around the center of AE is noted as compared to the CE. Within eddy interior, temperature and salinity tendencies of horizontal advection show a strong dipole pattern with extremum at eddy edges. The AE currents show positive tendencies in horizontal advection of temperature (salinity) at its northeastern (southwestern) side, which is totally opposite to that of CE. Intense horizontal advections in the adjacent flanks of eddies to the eastward jet of the WBC are due to their strong interactions. Vertical advection shows a quadrupole structure with alternating positive and negative cells within the eddies following the distorted vertical velocity field. Diffusion terms within eddies are quite small compared to the advection. Abundances of chlorophyll-a (∼1.2 mg/m3) at the base of the mixed layer around the CE center are absent for the AE.

Analysis of mesoscale Eddy in the Nordic seas and Barents Sea using multi-satellite data

Under the background of climate change, the characteristics of meso-scale eddies (radius > 20 km) in the Nordic Sea are worthy of further study. In this study, the daily sea level anomaly (SLA) product provided by archiving, validation, and interpretation of satellite oceanographic data (AVISO) and the daily sea surface temperature (SST) data provided by remote sensing systems (REMSSs) were collected from January 2003 to December 2021. The collected data were daily averaged with a spatial grid resolution of 0.25°. The large-scale eddies with a radius of >80 km and activity intensity (EKE) values of >0.02 m2/s were more detectable using SST data Moreover, the spatial distribution between the SLA-based and SST-based eddies had the opposite correlation with respect to the water depth. The SST-based eddies were more sensitive to seasonal variations. The long-term variations in the eddy parameters and the North Atlantic Oscillation Index (NAOI) during 2003–2021 were studied, and it was found that the radius of the SLA-based eddies was likely consistent with the NAOI and the EKE of the SLA-based eddies has the highest correlation (=0.2) with the NAOI, however, the correlation between eddy parameters and the NAOI is not significant. Collectively, SLA data has good performance on eddy identification in most cases, while SST data is suitable for investigating the activities of mesoscale eddies with large radius (> 80 km) and strong EKE (>0.02 m2/s).

An Energetic Mesoscale Anticyclonic Eddy in the Southern Bay of Bengal in June 2020: A Case Study

AbstractThe southern Bay of Bengal (BoB) is a region of rich mesoscale eddy activity that plays an important role in modulating water exchange between the BoB and the Arabian Sea. Although statistical surface characteristics of mesoscale eddies in the BoB have been sufficiently explored previously, most studies concentrated on the western and central BoB, but rarely in the southern BoB. In this study, an energetic mesoscale anticyclonic eddy (AE) was detected by long‐term mooring observations in the southern BoB during June 2020. The mooring observations revealed that the AE‐induced maximum temperature and salinity anomalies at 100 m were as large as 6.8°C and 0.3 psu, respectively. The available Argo profiles showed that the AE‐induced salinity anomalies had a three‐layer vertical structure, with a positive anomaly (maximum 0.28 psu) deeper than 100 m and (maximum 0.72 psu) shallower than 40 m, and a negative anomaly (maximum −0.86 psu) between 40 and 100 m, indicating that the AE could exert a significant effect on the redistribution of surface freshwater in the southern BoB. The AE formation was closely connected with remote forcing (equatorial Kelvin wave) and local processes (Rossby wave and local wind stress curl). Local energy conversion analysis demonstrated that baroclinic and barotropic instabilities, as well as wind stress work made comparable contributions to the generation of the AE. Given the frequent occurrence of the AEs to northwest of Sumatra, they could have significant effects on surface freshwater redistribution and regional ecosystem productivity in the southern BoB.

Luzon strait mesoscale eddy characteristics in HYCOM reanalysis, simulation, and forecasts

Luzon strait mesoscale eddy characteristics in HYCOM reanalysis, simulation, and forecasts

Characteristics of ocean mesoscale eddies in the Agulhas and Tasman Leakage regions from two eddy datasets

Mesoscale eddies play an essential role in the freshwater transport, ocean circulation and climate. Although there is no completely objective eddy dataset, observations can better reproduce the eddies in the ocean as data resolution is improved and eddy detection methods are developed to some extent. This study uses satellite altimeter data and compares the Mesoscale Eddy Trajectory Atlas Product (META) with the Global Ocean Mesoscale Eddy Atmospheric-Oceanic-Biological Interaction Observational Dataset (GOMEAD) to analyze the mesoscale eddy characteristics in the oceanic pathways in the Agulhas Leakage (AL) region at the intersection of the Indian and Atlantic Oceans, and the Tasman Leakage (TL) region between the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Here we show that, the META dataset is more applicable for the detection of small-radius eddies, but this product increases the risk of over-detection. The GOMEAD dataset offers precise eddy boundaries and is useful for identifying large diameter eddies. The characteristics of eddies in the AL and TL regions are analyzed, and the results indicate that GOMEAD is more suited for eddy detection and analysis in the AL, while the META dataset is better suited for studies of mesoscale eddies of the TL region. Choosing the appropriate dataset is important for understanding the role of mesoscale eddies of different areas in a changing climate.

Characteristics of Mesoscale Eddies in the Vicinity of the Kuroshio: Statistics from Satellite Altimeter Observations and OFES Model Data

Mesoscale eddies propagate westward in the northwestern Pacific Ocean and interact with the Kuroshio in the vicinity of the western boundary of the ocean. However, the processes affecting the eddy properties and the detailed structure of the eddies when they encounter the Kuroshio remain unclear. In this study, we analyze the statistics of the eddy properties around the Kuroshio using 25 years of satellite altimeter data and the eddy-resolving OFES model product. The spatial compositions of the eddies in the northwestern Pacific show that, as the eddies propagate westward, their radius and amplitude decrease sharply when they approach the Kuroshio region. The radius, amplitude, and kinetic energy of the eddies reaching the Kuroshio region decay much faster during their lifespan compared with the eddies in the interior of the Pacific Ocean. Furthermore, the three-dimensional structure of the eddies obtained from the OFES model data shows that the maximum temperature anomalies in the cyclonic and anticyclonic eddies occur at ~300 m, and the maximum depth reduces as a result of the interaction between the eddies and the main Kuroshio current.

Mesoscale eddies in the southwestern tropical Atlantic

The southwestern tropical Atlantic is a region of complex ocean dynamic where originates the strong western boundary current system composed of North Brazil current and North Brazil undercurrent. The region includes a variety of features including the Atoll das Rocas (AR) and Fernando de Noronha (FN) ridge that may favour mesoscale eddy dynamics. However, origin, occurrence and characteristics of mesoscale eddies were still not described in the region. Using satellite altimetry data from 1993 to 2018 off Northeast Brazil (37-25°W; 13-1°S), we reconstruct eddy trajectories and analyse the main eddy surface characteristics (e.g., size, amplitude, polarity) and their spatiotemporal variations. The study reveals two distinct dynamic regions before quantifying mesoscale eddies characteristics. Approximately 2000 mesoscale eddies crossed the region during the study period, among which 76% were generated inside the region, with amplitudes and radii ranging between 1 and 2 cm and 25 and 205 km, respectively. Eddies are preferentially formed between August and September and propagate westward. In the region around the FN Archipelago (36-26°W; 6-1°S), the formation of cyclonic eddies is likely favoured by barotropic instabilities of surface currents and the wind stress curl. On the other hand, in the south of the region (36-26°W; 12-8°S), eddies formation is likely associated with the barotropic instabilities, wind stress curl and the meandering of surface currents. Based on vertical temperature and salinity profiles from Argo floats’ data, we determined that in average, the core of cyclonic eddies is centred at ~ 130 m (140 m) in the northern (southern) region while the core of anticyclonic eddies is centred at ~90 m (125 m) in the northern (southern) region. Moreover, mesoscale eddies formed in the tropical Atlantic do not connect the eastern tropical Atlantic and northeast Brazil.

Rapid reconstruction of temperature and salinity fields based on machine learning and the assimilation application

Satellite observations play important roles in ocean operational forecasting systems, however, the direct assimilation of satellite observations cannot provide sufficient constraints on the model underwater structure. This study adopted the indirect assimilation method. First, we created a 3D temperature and salinity reconstruction model that took into account the advantage of the nonlinear regression of the generalized regression neural network with the fruit fly optimization (abbreviated as FOAGRNN). Compared with the reanalysis product and the WOA13 climatology data, the synthetic T/S (temperature and salinity) profiles had sufficient accuracy and could better describe the characteristics of mesoscale eddies. Then, the synthetic T/S profiles were assimilated into the Regional Ocean Model System (ROMS) using the Incremental Strong constraint 4D Variational (I4D-Var) data assimilation algorithm. The quantitative and qualitative analysis results indicated that compared with the direct assimilation of satellite observations, the root mean square errors (RMSEs) of temperature and salinity were reduced by 26.0% and 23.1% respectively by assimilating the synthetic T/S profiles. Furthermore, this method significantly improved the simulation effect of the model underwater structure, especially in the 300 m to 500 m water layer. Compared with the National Marine Data Center’s real-time analysis data, the machine learning-based assimilation system demonstrated a significant advantage in the simulation of underwater salinity structure, while showing a similar performance in the simulation of underwater temperature structure.

Comparative analysis of four types of mesoscale eddies in the north pacific subtropical countercurrent region – part I spatial characteristics

The North Pacific Subtropical Countercurrent (STCC) region has high mesoscale eddy activities due to its complex circulation structure. This study divides these mesoscale eddies into four types: cyclonic cold-core eddy (CCE), anticyclonic warm-core eddy (AWE), cyclonic warm-core eddy (CWE), and anticyclonic cold-core eddy (ACE) according to the rotation direction of the eddy flow field and the sign of average temperature anomaly within the eddy after spatial high-pass filtering. CCE and ACE are called normal eddies, while CWE and ACE are named abnormal eddies. Using eddy-resolving model data (OFES), this work finds that the abnormal eddy phenomenon mainly occurs in the ocean’s upper layer. The eddy number proportion for CCEs, AWEs, CWEs, and ACEs at the sea surface is 35.60, 32.08, 12.95, and 19.37%. The corresponding average radius is 79.14 ± 3.7, 83.34 ± 3.75, 73.74 ± 4.14, and 79.46 ± 3.89 km, respectively. Each type of eddy’s average amplitude is about 3 cm. Regarding the eddy average eccentricity, the four types of eddies have very close eccentricities, with a range of 0.73 ~ 0.76. If the types of eddies are not distinguished, the eddies generated north of 21°N tend to move southward, while eddies generated south of that latitude tend to move northward. The depth of CCEs, AWEs, CWEs, and ACEs with average eddy nonlinearity larger than one is concentrated in the ocean’s upper layer at 109.0, 116.0, 159.0, and 52.0 m, respectively. This study deepens the understanding of the spatial distribution characteristics of mesoscale eddies in the STCC region.

A Dual-Attention Mechanism Deep Learning Network for Mesoscale Eddy Detection by Mining Spatiotemporal Characteristics

Abstract Mesoscale eddies are a mechanism for ocean energy transfer, and identifying them on a global scale provides a means of exploring ocean mass and energy exchange between ocean basins. There are many widely used model-driven methods for detecting mesoscale eddies; however, these methods are not fully robust or generalizable. This study applies a data-driven method and proposes a mesoscale detection network based on the extraction of eddy-related spatiotemporal information from multisource remote sensing data. Focusing on the northwest Pacific, the study first analyzes mesoscale eddy characteristics using a combination of gridded data for the absolute dynamic topography (ADT), sea surface temperature (SST), and absolute geostrophic velocity (UVG). Then, a deep learning network with a dual-attention mechanism and a convolutional long short-term memory module is proposed, which can deeply exploit spatiotemporal feature relevance while encoding and decoding information in the gridded data. Based on the analysis of mesoscale eddy characteristics, ADT and UVG gridded data are selected to be the inputs for the detection network. The experiments show that the accuracy of the proposed network reaches 93.38%, and the weighted mean dice coefficient reaches 0.8918, which is a better score than those achieved by some of the detection networks proposed in previous studies, including U-Net, SymmetricNet, and ResU-Net. Moreover, compared with the model-driven approach used to generate the ground-truth dataset, the network method proposed here demonstrates better performance in detecting mesoscale eddies at smaller scales, partially addressing the problem of ghost eddies.

Data-attention-YOLO (DAY): A comprehensive framework for mesoscale eddy identification

The accurate mesoscale eddy identification methods with deep learning framework depend on either single eddy characteristic from altimeter missions or multi-step eddy examination strategies, disregarding those indistinguishable features from multiple eddy data integration. In this article, we first propose a data-attention-based YOLO (DAY) to precisely recognize mesoscale eddies in the South China Sea (SCS), which can hierarchically unite multiple eddy attributes and efficiently predict eddies with one-step strategy involving detection and classification. It consists of two main components: heterogeneous eddy data integration module and dynamic attention detecting module for eddy identification. The data integration component empirically transforms the field of multi-source eddy data and propagates eddy labels through automatic labeling method, which sustains a good supply for our dynamic attention-base detecting network. To thoroughly identify mesoscale eddies based on spatio-temporal patterns, DAY efficiently learns the characteristics of mesoscale eddies with an improved one-step identification YOLO network. The comparative evaluation results demonstrate that DAY achieves 54% performance improvement over the state-of-the-art methods on single gray SLA data and outperforms two-stage detecting technique Faster R-CNN by 51%.

Modeling Mesoscale Eddies Generated Over the Continental Slope, East Antarctica

Mesoscale eddies are abundant over the Antarctic continental slope, with the potential to regulate the water masses transport, mixing, and energy transfer. Over the relatively cold and fresh shelf regions around the Antarctic margins, in the absence of dense overflows, the baroclinic instability of the Antarctic Slope Current is still favorable in the generation of mesoscale eddies. However, mesoscale eddies are barely observed over the fresh shelf regions due to the sparsity of in situ hydrographic observations. Based on an idealized eddy-resolving coupled ocean-ice shelf model, this study investigates the characteristics of mesoscale eddies and corresponding influences on the local hydrographic properties over the continental slope, East Antarctica. With the aid of an automated eddy detection algorithm, bowl-shaped eddies are identified from the simulated velocity vector geometry. The Cyclonic Eddies (CE) has a barotropic vertical structure extending to more than 2,500 m depth, while the vertical shear of the Anticyclonic Eddies (AE) velocity is strong at the upper 200 m layer. Mesoscale eddies can trap the cold and fresh water in the southern flank of the Antarctic slope front and flow offshore to the relatively warm and saline region. Therefore, the influences of eddies on the hydrographic properties are not only governed by the eddy polarities but also the eddy-induced heat and salt transport.

Temporally Varying Mesoscale Eddy Characteristics in the California Current System Identified from RAFOS Floats

The SOund Fixing And Ranging (RAFOS) floats were deployed by the Naval Postgraduate School (NPS) near California coast from 1992 to 2004 at depth between 150 and 600 m (http://www.oc.nps.edu/npsRAFOS/). Each drifter trajectory is adaptively decomposed using the empirical mode decomposition (EMD) into low-frequency (non-diffusive, i.e., current) and high-frequency (diffusive, i.e., eddies) components. The identified eddies are mostly anticyclonic with total 203 anticyclonic and 36 cyclonic spirals. Eddy characteristics are determined from the time series of individual RAFOS float trajectory. They are the current velocity scale, eddy radial scale, eddy velocity scale, eddy Rossby number, and eddy-current kinetic energy ratio. The California Current System is found an eddy-rich system with the overall eddy-current kinetic energy ratio of 1.78. It contains submesoscale and mesoscale eddies. The horizontal length scale of 10 km is a good threshold of the eddy radial scale (Leddy) to separate the two kinds of eddies. The mean eddy Rossby number is 0.72 for the submesoscale eddies and 0.06 for the mesoscale eddies. The current-eddy kinetic energy ratio is similar between submesoscale and mesoscale eddies. This may imply similar current-eddy kinetic energy transfer for submesoscale and mesoscale eddies. Statistical characteristics and interannual variability of current velocity scale and eddy characteristic parameters are also presented.

The Surface and Three-dimensional Characteristics of Mesoscale Eddies: A Review

The Surface and Three-dimensional Characteristics of Mesoscale Eddies: A Review