Mercury Injection Techniques Research Articles

History of the development of the lymphatic system (part two)

The eighteenth century can rightly be considered the time of the most remarkable inventions in studying the lymphatic system. The Swiss Johann Conrad Peyer (1653–1712), in his "Exercitatio anatomico-medica de glandulis intestinorum earumque usu et affectionibus" (1677) described the presence of organized lymphatic vessels in the mucous membrane of the small intestine, which are named Peyer's plaques in his honor. Alexander Monro from the University of Edinburgh Medical School was the first to describe the function of the lymphatic system in detail. In 1701, Dutch botanist and anatomist Frederick Ruysch (1638-1731), a student of Van Horn, described the morphology and function of lymphatic valves. Another Dutch anatomist, Anton Nyuck (1650-1692), used the mercury injection technique to demonstrate the lymphatic system. The French anatomist Raymond Vuyssens (1641-1715), a pioneer in cardiac and nervous system anatomy, published his groundbreaking work in Nouvelles Découvertes sur le Coeur (1706) detailing the lymphatic system of the heart. The Italian histologist and microscopist Marcello Malpighi (1628–1689) gave a great impetus to the development of microanatomy with his pioneering microscope. New progress in the knowledge of the lymphatic system was provided by the English Hunter brothers. William Hunter (1718-1783) clearly suggested that lymphatic and milk vessels have two different properties that contribute to the formation of a single network of vessels endowed with an absorbing function. In 1731, Antonio Leprotti published a dissertation on the roots of the human lymphatic system. The Italian anatomist Paolo Mascagni (1755-1815) developed a special instrument with glass tubes for slowly introducing mercury into the lymphatic vessels. In the same year, 1787, Paolo Assalini published an essay on the lymphatic system, where the author tried to demonstrate the existence of "air-conducting" vessels. Like Nyuck and Mascagna, Vincenzo Foman (1794-1837) used mercury to inject the smallest lymphatic vessels. Another contribution to understanding the anatomy of the lymphatic system made the French anatomist Marie Philibert Constant Sappey (1810-1896), who was able to count the valves in the lymphatic vessels. The Polish pathologist Alfred Besiadecki (1839-1889) made a great contribution to the study of the lymphatic system of the skin. Thanks to his research, he refuted the prevailing hypothesis that the blood capillaries in the skin are located inside the lymphatic vessels. For the first time in history, he described the contiguous connection between lymphatic and blood vessels. In 1858, Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig (1816-1895) proposed the hypothesis that lymph is a filtrate of blood that is released from the capillary wall under the influence of intracapillary pressure. After that, the British doctor William Handley significantly contributed to the development of surgery for lymphatic disorders. In 1908, he introduced his technique of "lymphangioplasty". One of the key figures of this lymphatic revolution and "renaissance" is undoubtedly the Finnish researcher Kari Kustaa Alitalo (1952-present), who, together with his group and in collaboration with other international groups, made the most important discoveries regarding the growth factor/receptor system that controls the development of lymphatic vessels and lymphatic metastases of tumors.

Experimental study of non-Darcy flow characteristics in permeable stones

Abstract. This study provides experimental evidence of Forchheimer flow and the transition between different flow regimes from the perspective of the pore size of permeable stone. We first carry out seepage experiments on four kinds of permeable stones with mesh sizes of 24, 46, 60 and 80, corresponding to mean particle sizes (50 % by weight) of 0.71, 0.36, 0.25 and 0.18 mm, respectively. The seepage experiments show that an obvious deviation from Darcy flow regime is visible. In addition, the critical specific discharge corresponding to the transition between flow regimes (from pre-Darcy to post-Darcy) increases with increasing particle size. When the “pseudo” hydraulic conductivity (K, which is computed as the ratio of the specific discharge q and the hydraulic gradient) increases with increasing q, the flow regime is denoted pre-Darcy flow. After q increases to a certain value, the pseudo hydraulic conductivity begins to decrease; this regime is called post-Darcy flow. In addition, we use the mercury injection technique to measure the pore size distributions of four permeable stones with different particle sizes. The mercury injection curve is divided into three stages. The beginning and end segments of the mercury injection curve are very gentle, with relatively small slopes, while the intermediate mercury injection curve is steep, indicating that the pore size in permeable stones is relatively uniform. The porosity decreases as the mean particle sizes increases. The mean pore faithfully reflects the influences of the particle diameter, sorting degree and arrangement mode of the porous medium on seepage parameters. This study shows that the size of pores is an essential factor for determining the flow regime. In addition, the Forchheimer coefficients are discussed. The coefficient A (which is related to the linear term of the Forchheimer equation) is linearly related to 1/d2: A=0.00251/d2+0.003. The coefficient B (which is related to the quadratic term of the Forchheimer equation) is a quadratic function of 1/d: B=1.14×10-61/d2-1.26×10-61/d. The porosity (n) can be used to reveal the effects of the sorting degree and arrangement on the seepage coefficients. A larger porosity leads to smaller coefficients A and B for the same particle size.

Historical Review of Lymphatic Studies in the Hand

As a part of vascular systems, the lymphatic system was discovered later than the others. Initially lymphatic vessels were observed in the viscera of mammals. Lymphatic vessels of the human limbs were not found until the mercury injection technique was introduced, which were largely referred by later literature. However the knowledge sometimes does not match or explain some of the unexpected clinical findings. Although, the superficial lymphatic distribution of the upper limb has been updated during the last decade, but the deep lymphatic pathways of the hand were still remained in uncertainty till a recent article was reported. This review the current investigative approaches through the historical perspective for clinical management and scientific researches in this region.

An improved method to characterize the pore-throat structures in tight sandstone reservoirs: Combined high-pressure and rate-controlled mercury injection techniques

The pore-throat size determines the oil and gas occurrence and storage properties of sandstones and is a vital parameter to evaluate reservoir quality. Casting thin sections, field emission scanning electron microscopy, high-pressure mercury injection and rate-controlled mercury injection are used to qualitatively and quantitatively investigate the pore-throat structure characteristics of tight sandstone reservoirs of Xiaoheba Formation in the southeastern Sichuan Basin. The results show that the pore types include intergranular pores, intragranular dissolved pores, matrix pores, intercrystalline pores in clay minerals, and microfractures, and the pore-throat sizes range from the nanoscale to the microscale. The high-pressure mercury injection testing indicates that the pore-throat radius is in range of 0.004–11.017 µm, and the pore-throats with a radius >1 µm account for less than 15%. The rate-controlled mercury injection technique reveals that the tight sandstones with different physical properties have a similar pore size distribution (80–220 µm), but the throat radius and pore throat radius ratio distribution curves exhibit remarkable differences separately. The combination of the high-pressure mercury injection and rate-controlled mercury injection testing used in this work effectively reveals the total pore-throat size distribution in the Xiaoheba sandstones (0.004–260 µm). Moreover, the radius of the pore and the throat is respectively in range of 50–260 µm and 0.004–50 µm. The permeability of the tight sandstones is mostly affected by the small fraction (<40%) of relatively wide pore-throats. For the tight sandstones with good permeability (>0.1 mD), the larger micropores and mesopores exert a great influence on the permeability. In contrast, the permeability is mainly influenced by the larger nanopores. Furthermore, the proportion of narrow pore-throats in tight sandstones increases with reducing permeability. Although the large number of narrow pore-throat (<100 nm) makes a certain contribution to both reservoir porosity and permeability, they have contribution to the former is far more than to the latter.

In-situ oxidation effect on pore size distribution in investigating adsorption properties under various geochemical conditions

Redox affected pumice tuff was used to investigate the changes of pore properties due to oxidation and its possible consequences to adsorption of nuclides on it. Porosity and pore size distribution were analyzed by mercury injection technique and scanning electron microscopy. Batch experiment was carried out with 1 cm3 block shaped intact pumice tuff samples to determine adsorption coefficient, Kd at several pH, ionic strength and initial nuclide concentrations of stable cesium (133Cs). Pore area, surface area and specific surface area were determined from pore size distribution data before and after adsorption experiment and later compared between fresh and oxidized samples. The results showed that reduction of less than 0.33 μm size micro pores due to oxidation is mainly responsible for reducing surface areas, eventually reducing the sorption quantity. Influence of pore properties became negligible in redox affected pumice tuff indicating inverse relation of oxidation phenomena with adsorption coefficients values.

Sedimentary and diagenetic control on the porosity and permeability in Lower-Middle Jurassic reservoirs, northern margin of Tianshan, China

The Lower-Middle Jurassic sandstone reservoirs in the northern margin of Tianshan are considered a significant area of tight sandstone gas. Sedimentary, petrologic and petroleum geologic criteria have been surveyed in six sections along continuous outcrops and cores. Thin sections and scanning electron microscope (SEM) images combined with mercury injection techniques are used to restore the evolution of pore-throat structures. The Lower-Middle Jurassic sandstones are mainly low-porosity and extra-low-permeability reservoirs. The results of constant-rate mercury injection reveal that the distribution pattern of the pore radii is not related to permeability, whereas the throat radii increase with increasing permeability. The microcosmic heterogeneity in reservoirs is dominated by a high proportion of narrow throats. An analysis of the reservoirs' physical properties and diagenesis indicates that the quality of the Lower-Middle Jurassic sandstone reservoirs is controlled by sedimentary environment, eodiagenesis, and diagenesis that developed in different sedimentary microfacies. The pore-throat structures can be divided into six types. In coal-bearing formations that are rich in organic matter, compaction decreases the quality of the reservoirs, and the reaction of early-formed kaolinite with remnant, undissolved K-feldspar may cause diagenetic illite to block the throats. At the bottom of the fluvial channels in braided river delta plains or at the top of mouth bars in braided river delta fronts, eodiagenesis can inhibit compaction via early basal carbonate cementation, and the unfavorable reservoirs are extra-low-porosity and extra-low-permeability sandstones. Infiltration-related clay is widespread. Smectite coats covered grains, and kaolinite filled remnant intergranular pores as aggregations, which increased the heterogeneity of the pore-throat structures. Authigenic chlorite coats protect intergranular pores from compaction and cementation by quartz overgrowths. Reservoirs with medium to low porosity and medium to low permeability come from the middle-upper portions of fluvial channels in braided river delta plains of the Xishanyao Formation or from the upper part of sub-water fluvial channels in the Badaowan Formation and the Sangonghe Formation or mouth bars in braided river delta fronts of the Sangonghe Formation. In near-surface settings, such as the bottom of fluvial channels or the top of mouth bars in braided river deltas, infiltration-related dissolution leads to more intergranular dissolution pores. However, the development of the highest-quality reservoirs, i.e., medium porosity and medium permeability, is limited. Other types exist between these end members in quality. Due to good sorting and low matrix content, the barrier bars of the Toutunhe Formation and the Sangonghe Formation with good lateral connectivity in the lacustrine facies are widespread in the northern margin of Tianshan and are considered to be high-quality reservoirs.

Evaluation of free porosity in shale gas reservoirs (Roseneath and Murteree formations case study)

Organically rich shale rocks represent a voluminous, long-term, global source of natural gas and could be referred to as shale gas. Unlike conventional gas reservoirs, shale gas reservoirs have very low effective porosity and permeability. Therefore, an evaluation of porosity in such a tight rock is a challenge. The Roseneath and Murtree shale formations in the Cooper Basin are believed to be potential shale gas reservoirs in SA. Core samples of Murteree and Roseneath carbonaceous shales from the Della–4 and Moomba–46 wells were collected to measure interstitial and intergranular porosity in these prospective shale gas reservoirs in the Nappamerri Trough. After initial preparation, the shale core samples were investigated to determine the pore size classification and effective free porosity using the mercury injection capillary pressure technique (MCIP). The focused ion beam/scanning electron microscopy (FIB/SEM) technique was then employed to obtain micro and nano scale images of the core samples. Then, helium porosimetry was used on the samples to measure their effective porosity. Finally, the pyknometry method was used on the crushed samples to measure their total intergranular porosity. MICP techniques revealed that the samples were mainly comprised of meso-porosity, with the pore throat diameters between 2–50 nanometres and an effective porosity of less than 2%. Helium porosimetry also showed an average porosity of less than 2%. Liquid pyknometry revealed an average absolute porosity of 30.5% for Murteree shale and 39% for the the Roseneath shale, which is much higher than the results from the MCIP technique and helium porosimetry. This is an indication of having very high isolated porosity and very low permeability. The findings were analysed and validated by the use of SEM images, displaying high amounts of isolated porosity, confirming the high porosity measurement from the pyknometry technique. The results achieved strongly emphasised that gas prone, over-mature, carbonaceous shales have very low effective but very high total porosity. Therefore, it is envisaged that total intergranular porosity holding compressed gas in over-mature source rocks cannot be evaluated using the helium porosimetry and mercury injection techniques. The pyknometry technique supported by the SEM images is an alternative method; however, this method can only measure total, rather than effective, porosity.

Pore network connectivity anisotropy in Jurassic argillite specimens from eastern Paris Basin (France)

In order to test the feasibility of nuclear waste storage, Andra, the French radioactive waste management agency, gave us the opportunity to study preserved specimens of Jurassic clay-rich rocks from eastern Paris Basin. These rocks, deposited during the Callovian and beginning of the Oxfordian, are dark- to light-grey marls that consist mainly in a mixture of clay, calcite and silt. Magnetic susceptibility and remanence vary according to the clay/calcite/silt ratios and the mineral preferred orientations are characterized by the anisotropy of the magnetic susceptibility. A few test specimens, sampled from borehole-core #HTM 102, and coming from the base and top levels of the Callovo-Oxfordian argillite formation, were subjected to connected porosity measurements using the mercury injection technique. By imposing mercury to flow parallel to a given direction, we were able to determine the anisotropy of connectivity along the three principal magnetic susceptibility axes. We find that the clay-richest specimens have a large and sub-isotropic connected porosity which is mostly accessible through the smallest pore threshold diameters (<0.02 μm). By contrast, carbonate-enriched specimens have anisotropic and smaller connected porosities accessible through larger pore thresholds (∼0.08 μm). Except in a carbonate-enriched specimen where the largest connectivity axis is vertical, attributed to tension cracks normal to bedding, the pore connectivity anisotropy positively correlates with the magnetic anisotropy, hence with the mineral arrangement.

Estudio petrofísico de las areniscas del Palacio de Revillagigedo de Gijón (Asturias)

The petrography and physical properties of the building stones used in the construction of the Revillagigedo Palace (Gijon, Spain), 1699-1711, are studied. The physical properties more closely related to the state of alteration and to the alterability processes of these Uper Jurassic sandstones are quantified, namely: rock density, porosity, open porosity, capillarity, etc. The pore space configuration is appreciated under optic and electronic microscopy; the size distribution and total volume of the open pores are obtained by means of mercury injection techniques.

A study of the inter- and intra-fibre pore characteristics of some nylon fabrics by mercury porosimetry

The effective pore size distributions of twelve non-woven nylon materials have been measured using the mercury injection technique. All show intrusions at pressures up to 20 psi due to inter-fibre voids; five materials show significant intrusions between 50 and 30,000 psi corresponding to intra-fibre voids the presence of which is confirmed by scanning electron microscopy. It appears, on applying a rigorous correction to the data for the compressibilities of the glass sample cell and contents, that the nylon remains compressed on releasing the pressure from 30,000 psi, and the mercury has a lower compressibility above 10,000 psi than it has below this pressure; the glass sample cell shows a delayed elastic effect when the pressure is reduced. The maxima of the effective pore size distributions of the intra-fibre voids are in the range 80 – 600 Å radius.

AN ANALYSIS OF PORE SIZE IN ILLITE‐KAOLINITE MIXTURES

SummaryWhen API‐9 kaolinite and Willalooka illite clays were mixed in various proportions, the pore‐size distributions obtained using nitrogen sorption and mercury injection techniques were found to be characteristic of neither of the components but showed a progressive reduction in the pore size as the concentration of illite was increased. The plate separation of the mixtures showed a marked decrease with initial added illite, approaching that of the illite when the mixture contained approximately 40 per cent illite. This is indicative of a homogeneous mixture in which the fine illite particles fill in the pores bounded by the relatively coarse kaolinite particles.The relationship between particle dimensions (derived from crystallographic parameters and specific surface area) and pore size of single clays and clay mixtures is consistent with a model in which slit‐shaped pores result from the parallel interleaving of clay crystals for the single clays. Some deviations occur for the mixtures.

Correlation of kg/ko Data with Sandstone Core Characteristics

Published in Petroleum Transactions, AIME, Volume 216, 1959, pages 258–261. Introduction Engineers are frequently faced with the problem of having to predict oil recovery from a solution gas drive reservoir in the early life of a field. This is often the time when actual laboratory or field-derived gas-oil permeability (kg/ko) data are not yet available. Although excellent collections of kg/ko data for various types of rocks may be found in the literature, a need exists for a more detailed correlation of k2/k, data with core properties such as porosity, permeability, clay content or pore-size distribution. It is the purpose of this article to present this type of correlation for sandstone material. The correlation is based on laboratory tests performed on over 300 core samples from 19 reservoirs in the United States and Canada. Experimental Cores were analyzed by routine procedures, using samples of conventional size (7/8-in. diameter, 7/8-in long) cut parallel to the bedding planes. Air permeability was measured at 1.67 atm mean pressure in a Hassler-type apparatus. Porosity was determined with the aid of a Ruska bulk volume meter and a Boyle's Law rock volume meter. An evaporation method was used to evaluate irreducible water saturations. Core samples were saturated with 25,000 ppm NaCl brine. The brine was reduced to the irreducible saturation, and the remainder of the pore space was filled with kerosene. This was followed by multiphase flow tests using the so-called "dispersed feed" technique. In this technique, gas and oil (kerosene and kerosene-saturated air) were dispersed with the aid of a porous Alundum feed head, the face of which contained a waffle-shaped system of Lucite-lined grooves. Oil entered the back side of the feed head and emerged at the raised areas of the front face. Gas was introduced directly into the system of grooves at the front face. The gas-oil mixture then entered the test core which was kept in capillary contact with the feed head. Permeabilities were determined from rate and pressure measurements and saturations from weights. All determinations were performed at equilibrium or steady-state conditions. Pore-size distributions were determined on selected samples by a mercury injection technique.