Ice Meltwater Research Articles

From winter to late summer in the northwestern Barents Sea shelf: Impacts of seasonal progression of sea ice and upper ocean on nutrient and phytoplankton dynamics

Strong seasonality is a key feature of high-latitude systems like the Barents Sea. While the interannual variability and long-term changes of the Barents Sea are well-documented, the seasonal progression of the physical and biological systems is less known, mainly due to poor accessibility of the seasonally ice-covered area in winter and spring. Here, we use an extensive set of physical and biological in situ observations from four scientific expeditions covering the seasonal progression from late winter to late summer 2021 in the northwestern Barents Sea, from fully ice-covered to ice-free conditions. We found that sea ice meltwater and the timing of ice-free conditions in summer shape the environment, controlling heat accumulation, light and nutrient availability, and biological activity vertically, seasonally, and meridionally. In March and May, the ocean north of the Polar Front was ice-covered and featured a deep mixed layer. Chlorophyll-a concentrations increased strongly from March to May along with greater euphotic depth, indicating the beginning of the spring bloom despite the absence of surface layer stratification. By July and in September, sea ice meltwater created a shallow low-density surface layer that strengthened stratification. In open water, chlorophyll-a maxima were found at the base of this layer as surface nutrients were depleted, while in the presence of ice, maxima were closer to the surface. Solar heating and the thickness of the surface layer increased with the number of ice-free days. The summer data showed a prime example of an Arctic-like space-for-time seasonal variability in the key physical and biological patterns, with the summer situation progressing northwards following sea ice retreat. The amount of sea ice melt (local or imported) has a strong control on the conditions in the northwestern Barents Sea, and the conditions in late 2021 resembled pre-2010 Arctic-like conditions with high freshwater content and lower ocean heat content.

A four-component mixing model reveals snowpack melting as early as March during the 2019 hydrological year in the Upper Ganga Basin

Ice and snow meltwater are important components of the glacier-fed Himalayan rivers that control the seasonal streamflow pattern. With the ongoing global warming, there remains significant uncertainty regarding how melting Himalayan glaciers will impact the water runoff. Here, we quantified the rainwater, ice meltwater, snow meltwater, and groundwater flow in the river using a δ18O, d, and Cl- -based 4-component hydro-geochemical mixing model. At a weekly resolution, we measured the stable water isotopes (18O/16O and 2H/1H, expressed as δ18O and δD), Cl- and Na+ near the river Alaknanda mouth, in the Upper Ganga Basin over one year (2018–2019). The weekly scale time-series geochemical record captured the subtle variability of ice and snow meltwater flow in the Alaknanda River. The two most significant observation was (i) an onset of snow meltwater was observed as early as in March during the study period contrary to our present understanding that the onset of snow meltwater usually happens in April, and (ii) a significant increase in ice and snow meltwater flow during the peak monsoon season. The early onset of snow meltwater runoff in the Himalayan rivers could be an important concern as this could potentially reduce the flow of snow meltwater during the early summer months when water demand is highest due to intense agricultural activities in the mountainous region. Similarly, an increase in ice meltwater runoff in the monsoon season increases the risks of major flood events. Since weekly scale time-series data of ice meltwater, snow meltwater, rainwater, and groundwater flow in glacier-fed Himalayan rivers over the entire hydrological year was largely missing, this study provides an important dataset to better understand the year-long dependency of the Himalayan rivers on the glaciers critical to improving the accuracy and predictive power of hydrologic models.

Global warming and Ice Nucleation in Central Himalayas: A Case Study of Skardu District

Water is an essential need for life and demand for water supply is exponentially increasing with elevating human population. Ice nucleation plays a fundamental role in shaping precipitation patterns and influencing the Earth's climate system. Skardu's unique location amidst the Karakorum. As temperatures decrease, there is a noticeable increase in stream water and ice melt water, potentially impacting biological activity and ecological processes. Following Vali’s equation and finding number of frozen drops from -1 to -10 degree Celsius after 5 mints incubation at each degree. The correlation between temperature and frozen drops adds complexity, highlighting the heightened sensitivity of environmental phenomena to temperature variations, with frozen drops peaking at extremely low temperatures. Ice nucleation results at Skardu showed that stream water can maximize IN 17.5 times from its starting point of freezing points while ice melt water increased 9 times, sediments 5 times. Biotic factors of plant 1 and plant 2 showed 25 times and 24 times increase in IN from starting point of freezing. Result of IN at Shigari showed, stream water increased 9.5 times, ICM increased 9 times, sediment 4 times, plant 21 times and plant 2 showed 23.5 times from their first freezing happened. Cold desert, IN results showed that stream water increased 11 times, ICM 19 times, sediments 4 times, plant-1 25 times and plant-2 24.5 times increased in IN from their first freezing point.

Impacts of Basal Melting of the Totten Ice Shelf and Biological Productivity on Marine Biogeochemical Components in Sabrina Coast, East Antarctica

AbstractTo clarify the impacts of basal melting of the Antarctic ice sheet and biological productivity on biogeochemical processes in Antarctic coastal waters, concentrations of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), total alkalinity (TA), inorganic nutrients, chlorophyll a, and stable oxygen isotopic ratios (δ18O) were measured from the offshore slope to the ice front of the Totten Ice Shelf (TIS) during the spring/summer of 2018, 2019, and 2020. Modified Circumpolar Deep Water (mCDW) intruded onto the continental shelf off the TIS and flowed along bathymetric troughs into the TIS cavity, where it formed a buoyant mixture with glacial meltwater from the ice shelf base. Physical oceanographic processes mostly determined the distributions of DIC, TA, and nutrient concentrations. However, photosynthesis and dilution by meltwater from sea ice and the ice shelf base decreased DIC, TA, and nutrient concentrations in surface water near the ice front. These causes also reduced the partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) in surface water by more than 100 μatm with respect to mCDW in austral summer of 2018 and 2020, and the surface water became a strong CO2 sink for the atmosphere. Phytoplankton photosynthesis changed DIC and TA in a molar ratio of 106:16. Thus, pCO2 decreased mostly as a result of photosynthesis while dilution by glacial and sea ice meltwater had a small effect. The nutrient consumption ratio suggested that photosynthesis was stimulated by iron in the water column, supplied to the surface layer via buoyancy‐driven upwelling and basal ice shelf meltwater in addition to sea ice meltwater.

Source of soil water in cold regions based on stable isotope tracers

Soil water plays a key role in vegetation growth and ecological stability in cold regions. The soil water sources in the Qilian Mountains of the northeastern Tibetan Plateau have been quantified based on stable isotope data (δ2H and δ18O) of 1913 samples. The results indicated that δ18O of soil water ranged from ˗14.13–11.21‰, with an average of ˗6.78‰, and on a spatial scale, it increased gradually from the southeast to the northwest, where it became more positive. The stable isotopes of soil water are affected by evaporation, leading to a lower slope and interception of the evaporation line: δ2H = 3.23 δ18O–32.51 (R2 = 0.71, p < 0.01). The relationship between soil water and other water bodies showed that the soil water was mainly replenished by precipitation and ground ice meltwater. End-member mixing analysis (EMMA) showed that precipitation and ground ice accounted for approximately 91 % and 9 % of soil water, respectively, during heavy ablation. In the 0–20 cm, 20–40 cm, 40–60 cm, 60–80 cm, and 80–100 cm soil layers, the contributions of ground ice meltwater to soil water were 0 %, 3 %, 7 %, 13 %, and 18 %, respectively. Notably, the contribution of ground ice meltwater to soil water gradually increased with elevation, whereas that of precipitation decreased. This study has obtained relevant data for the cold region, where it is typically difficult to conduct observations and sampling. More importantly, it analyzes the source and influencing factors of soil water in cold regions using the stable isotope method, which is of great significance for the study of the water cycle in cold regions.

Metal enrichment in ice-melt water and uptake by chironomids as possible legacy of World War One in the Italian Alps

Relics of World War One (WW1) were buried in alpine glaciers around 100 years ago. Today, these are emerging from the ice due to widespread glacier retreat, and are in direct contact with glacial meltwater-fed streams. To address a possible emergent contamination, we quantified major and trace elements (M-TEs) by mass spectrometry in water and larvae of Diamesa zernyi from three glacial streams fed by glaciers differently impacted by the Italian Austro-Hungarian war, in the Adamello-Presanella mountain range (Italian Alps): Lares and Presena, the two main battlefields, and Amola, 8 km from the front. M-TEs in stream water were interpreted using the crustal enrichment factor (EFc) while larval uptake was quantified by adopting the bioaccumulation factor (BAF). Despite low M-TEs concentrations in the water, in a range between 1 ng L−1 (Ag, Ta) and 1–2 mg L−1 (Al, Fe, Mg), low to moderate enrichments (10 ≥ EFc≥ 6) were observed for Sb and U in Presena and for Ag, As, Bi, Cd, Li, Mo, Pb, Sb and U in Lares. In addition, M-TE mass concentrations in larvae were up to ninety thousand times higher than in water, from 20 to 50 ng g−1 dry weight (d.w.; for Bi, Sb, Ta, Tl) to 1–4 mg g−1 d.w. (for Al, Fe, Na, and Mg). Larvae from Lares accumulated the largest amount of metals and metalloids, including those mostly used in the manufacture of artillery shells (As, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb; BAFs from 375 to about 11,500). This was expected as most of the WW1 battles in this mountain range were fought on the Lares glacier, where the greatest number of war relics are emerging. These results provide preliminary evidence of water contamination and bioaccumulation of metals and metalloids by glacial fauna as a possible legacy of WW1 in the Alps.

Distribution of stable oxygen isotope in seawater and implication on freshwater cycle off the coast from Wilkes to George V Land, East Antarctica

To investigate the cross-slope freshwater exchange in the Australian-Antarctic Basin between 80 and 150°E, the stable oxygen isotopic ratio (δ18O) was evaluated based on top-to-bottom hydrographic sections by R/V Kaiyo-Maru in 2018/2019 summer. The southern flank of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) flows eastward in the north and the Antarctic Slope Current (ASC) flows westward along the continental slope in the south of the analysis domain. Continental shelf regions including the area off Sabrina Coast were also studied. We obtained the spatial δ18O structure characteristics of water masses that were transformed by freshwater input from the highest Circumpolar Deep-Water value. δ18O-salinity relationship in the near-surface layer revealed a regional difference between the upper and lower continental slopes. The fractions of sea ice melt and meteoric water were estimated using mass-balance calculations assuming constant endmembers with no spatial and temporal variabilities. The fraction of sea ice meltwater was usually highest at the surface and rapidly decreased to the temperature minimum layer, while the meteoric water fraction was also highest at the surface, gradually decreasing to the temperature maximum layer. The meteoric water fraction is usually high on the upper slope and continental shelf. The area-average of sea ice meltwater integrated above the temperature minimum is about 0.7 m water-equivalent, with large accumulation off and downstream of the coastal polynyas. Given the projected future glacial ice discharge and sea ice cover changes, repeated δ18O measurement is crucial to implicate the future response of the freshwater cycle closer to the Antarctic continental shelf.

Impacts of seasonally frozen soil hydrothermal dynamics on the watershed hydrological processes inferred from a spatially distributed numerical modelling approach

The freeze–thaw cycle over the surface seasonally frozen soil is an important soil hydrothermal dynamic process linking land surface processes and climatic changes in the cold regions. With the advancement of frozen soil hydrothermal dynamic studies and remote sensing technology, the simulation of frozen soil hydrological processes based on the distributed numerical model has become a hotspot to better understand the impact of frozen soil hydrothermal dynamics on the watershed hydrological processes in the cold regions over a large spatial scale. However, the quantitative analysis of the impact of seasonally frozen soil hydrothermal processes on watershed runoff at long-term time scales remained an unsolved issue in the field of frozen soil hydrology. Under the framework of the watershed distributed eco-hydrological model ESSI-3, a fully distributed frozen soil hydro-thermal processes integrated modeling system (FFIMS model) was established based on the coupled water and heat transferring mechanism for frozen soil hydro-thermal process simulations in the frozen surface or at a certain depth of a watershed. By coupling the FFIMS model with the distributed eco-hydrological model ESSI-3, the impacts of seasonally frozen soil hydrothermal processes on hydrological processes were investigated from the perspective of temporal-spatial domain with the simulated hydrothermal and hydrological processes for a long-term period from 2008 to 2016 over a watershed located in the cold region of Northeastern China. The results suggested that the soil freeze–thaw cycling posed different impacts with limited significance throughout the whole hydrological processes of the watershed in different seasons. Significant impacts on the hydrological processes were particularly observed in the thawing period of a year, when soil ice meltwater contributing to the discharge of the study watershed reached to about 35% in average in this period. ESSI-3 coupled with the FFIMS modelling system obviously improved the performance of the original ESSI-3 in cold region watershed simulations, and the averaged Nash efficiency coefficients obtained increased from almost 0 to 0.77 in the thawing period of a year. The study demonstrated the importance of application of spatially distributed numerical model with physical mechanism for seasonally frozen soil water and heat transfer process simulations.

Gullies on Mars could have formed by melting of water ice during periods of high obliquity.

Gullies on Mars resemble water-carved channels on Earth, but they are mostly at elevations where liquid water is not expected under current climate conditions. It has been suggested that sublimation of carbon dioxide ice alone could have formed Martian gullies. We used a general circulation model to show that the highest-elevation Martian gullies coincide with the boundary of terrain that experienced pressures above the triple point of water when Mars' rotational axis tilt reached 35°. Those conditions have occurred repeatedly over the past several million years, most recently ~630,000 years ago. Surface water ice, if present at these locations, could have melted when temperatures rose >273 kelvin. We propose a dual gully formation scenario that is driven by melting of water ice followed by carbon dioxide ice sublimation.

Dynamics of Ice Nucleation along the Central Himalaya, Skardu, Pakistan

Freshwater resources are precipitation and ice nucleation, which are vulnerable in environmental density with increasing human population and anthropogenic inclined indulgence, leading to the threat of complete disappearance of ice cover. Regarding global prospects, the Himalayas have grave significance regarding ice resources, and Pakistan's dependency upon fresh water from ice covers is more than 70%. Investigation of ice nucleation in the central Himalayas and Skardu regions in Pakistan indicates that abiotic factors like pH and temperature and biotic factors like bacterial presence in sediments or soil, ice meltwater, stream water and plants play a vital role in ice nucleation. Vegetation is the best habitat for bacteria with movement of 50 to 500 culturable cells/m2/sec (Suzuki et al. 1993, Morris et al. 2004 and Goodnow et al. 1990). Application of Vali's formulation c(T)= {ln (No) – ln (No -N(T))}/A for ice nucleation per bacterial cell shows biotic factors are more significant than abiotic factors. Trees like Cedrus deodara (Roxb.ex D. Don) (common name Diar) family name is Pinaceae showed the most significant tendency among the studied variables for ice nucleation, with ln c(T)= -14.84 as compared to Pinus roxburghii Sargent (botanical name) Chir (common name) Pinaceae (family name) ln c(T) = -15.9. Ice nucleation per cell (ln c(T)) in ice meltwater, stream water and sediment were -16, -15 and -15.14, respectively. P.H.PH range was near to neutral value (7) with the highest 8.4 in deposits and the lowest 7-making range of 1.4. The lowest mean monthly temperature in January from 2000 to 2022 is -12.6 oC (2013), while the warmest mean low temperature is -6.2 oC (2022), as per PMD. These temperature ranges are ideal for heterogeneous ice nucleation, as 50% of drops were frozen in the sample taken from the plants at a temperature of -10 °C. In comparison, stream water showed 35% frozen drops in this study. The research methodology following bacterial tests (H2S and Gram tests) and evaluation of abiotic factors like pH, temperature, wind direction indicates more impactful are biotic factors and low temperature for heterogenous ice nucleation.

Different mechanisms of Arctic first-year sea-ice ridge consolidation observed during the MOSAiC expedition

Sea-ice ridges constitute a large fraction of the ice volume in the Arctic Ocean, yet we know little about the evolution of these ice masses. Here we examine the thermal and morphological evolution of an Arctic first-year sea-ice ridge, from its formation to advanced melt. Initially the mean keel depth was 5.6 m and mean sail height was 0.7 m. The initial rubble macroporosity (fraction of seawater filled voids) was estimated at 29% from ice drilling and 43%–46% from buoy temperature. From January until mid-April, the ridge consolidated slowly by heat loss to the atmosphere and the total consolidated layer growth during this phase was 0.7 m. From mid-April to mid-June, there was a sudden increase of ridge consolidation rate despite no increase in conductive heat flux. We surmise this change was related to decreased macroporosity due to transport of snow-slush to the ridge keel rubble via adjacent open leads. In this period, the mean thickness of the consolidated layer increased by 2.1 m. At the peak of melt in June–July we suggest that the consolidation was related to the refreezing of surface snow and ice meltwater and of ridge keel meltwater (the latter only about 15% of total consolidation). We used the morphology parameters of the ridge to calculate its hydrostatic equilibrium and obtained a more accurate estimate of the actual consolidation of the keel, correcting from 2.2 m to 2.8 m for average keel consolidation. This approach also allowed us to estimate that the average keel melt of 0.3 m, in June–July, was accompanied by a decrease in ridge draft of 0.9 m. An ice mass balance buoy in the ridge indicated total consolidation of 2.8 m, of which 2.1 m was related to the rapid mode of consolidation from April to June. By mid-June, consolidation resulted in a drastic decrease of the macroporosity of the interior of keel while the flanks had little or no change in macroporosity. These results are important to understanding the role of ridge keels as meltwater sources and sinks and as sanctuary for ice-associated organisms in Arctic pack ice.

Increased sea ice melt as a driver of enhanced Arctic phytoplankton blooming.

Phytoplankton primary production in the Arctic Ocean has been increasing over the last two decades. In 2019, a record spring bloom occurred in Fram Strait, characterized by a peak in chlorophyll that was reached weeks earlier than in other years and was larger than any previously recorded May bloom. Here, we consider the conditions that led to this event and examine drivers of spring phytoplankton blooms in Fram Strait using in situ, remote sensing, and data assimilation methods. From samples collected during the May 2019 bloom, we observe a direct relationship between sea ice meltwater in the upper water column and chlorophyll a pigment concentrations. We place the 2019 spring dynamics in context of the past 20 years, a period marked by rapid change in climatic conditions. Our findings suggest that increased advection of sea ice into the region and warmer surface temperatures led to a rise in meltwater input and stronger near-surface stratification. Over this time period, we identify large-scale spatial correlations in Fram Strait between increased chlorophyll a concentrations and increased freshwater flux from sea ice melt.

Pore scale study of ice melting and multiphase flow in gas diffusion layer with porosity gradient in PEMFC

An enthalpy-based multi-component multiphase flow model is established by using the lattice Boltzmann method (LBM), and the ice melting and liquid water flow behavior during cold start process in gas diffusion layers (GDLs) with porosity gradients of proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) are captured. GDLs with five porosity gradients are considered to explore the ice melting efficiency, temperature distribution characteristics and liquid water transport. The results show that the ice melting rate is significantly affected by the porosity distribution. The model of porosity decreasing gradually from near catalyst layer to near channel side (M4) greatly improves ice melt efficiency by up to 61.44%, while the 'V' porosity gradient (M2) and the model of porosity increasing gradually from near catalyst layer to near channel side (M3) prolong the heating and melting time of 15.6% and 25.56% respectively. The arrangement of small porosity structure near the channel side enhance the convective and conduction heat transfer. The hydrophilicity of the surface of fibers is beneficial to ice melting but hinders the discharge of liquid water. Considering the ice melting efficiency and drainage performance, the GDL with porosity gradient can be used when selecting the auxiliary measure of inlet preheating.

Phytoplankton responses to increasing Arctic river discharge under the present and future climate simulations

In recent decades, the unprecedented rate of Arctic warming has accelerated the high-latitude landmass hydrological cycle, leading to increased river discharge into the Arctic Ocean. This study elucidates the role of Arctic river discharge, which was the large model uncertainty in the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 6, for the phytoplankton responses in present-day and future climate simulations by adding fresh water into the model. In the present-day climate simulation, additional river discharge decreases the spring phytoplankton biomass. Freshening of Arctic seawater facilitates freezing, increasing sea ice concentration in spring and eventually decreasing phytoplankton due to less availability of light. On the other hand, in the summer, phytoplankton increases due to the surplus of surface nitrate and the increase in the vertical mixing induced by the reduced summer sea ice melting water. In the future climate, the plankton response to the additional freshwater input is similar to the present-day climate. Nevertheless, the major phytoplankton responses are shifted from the Eurasian Basin to the Canada Basin and the East-Siberian Sea, mainly due to the marginal sea ice zone shift from the Barents-Kara Sea to the East Siberian-Chukchi Sea in the future.

Meltwater layer dynamics in a central Arctic lead: Effects of lead width, re-freezing, and mixing during late summer

Leads play an important role in the exchange of heat, gases, vapour, and particles between seawater and the atmosphere in ice-covered polar oceans. In summer, these processes can be modified significantly by the formation of a meltwater layer at the surface, yet we know little about the dynamics of meltwater layer formation and persistence. During the drift campaign of the Multidisciplinary drifting Observatory for the Study of Arctic Climate (MOSAiC), we examined how variation in lead width, re-freezing, and mixing events affected the vertical structure of lead waters during late summer in the central Arctic. At the beginning of the 4-week survey period, a meltwater layer occupied the surface 0.8 m of the lead, and temperature and salinity showed strong vertical gradients. Stable oxygen isotopes indicate that the meltwater consisted mainly of sea ice meltwater rather than snow meltwater. During the first half of the survey period (before freezing), the meltwater layer thickness decreased rapidly as lead width increased and stretched the layer horizontally. During the latter half of the survey period (after freezing of the lead surface), stratification weakened and the meltwater layer became thinner before disappearing completely due to surface ice formation and mixing processes. Removal of meltwater during surface ice formation explained about 43% of the reduction in thickness of the meltwater layer. The remaining approximate 57% could be explained by mixing within the water column initiated by disturbance of the lower boundary of the meltwater layer through wind-induced ice floe drift. These results indicate that rapid, dynamic changes to lead water structure can have potentially significant effects on the exchange of physical and biogeochemical components throughout the atmosphere–lead–underlying seawater system.

Southern ocean carbon and heat impact on climate.

The Southern Ocean greatly contributes to the regulation of the global climate by controlling important heat and carbon exchanges between the atmosphere and the ocean. Rates of climate change on decadal timescales are therefore impacted by oceanic processes taking place in the Southern Ocean, yet too little is known about these processes. Limitations come both from the lack of observations in this extreme environment and its inherent sensitivity to intermittent processes at scales that are not well captured in current Earth system models. The Southern Ocean Carbon and Heat Impact on Climate programme was launched to address this knowledge gap, with the overall objective to understand and quantify variability of heat and carbon budgets in the Southern Ocean through an investigation of the key physical processes controlling exchanges between the atmosphere, ocean and sea ice using a combination of observational and modelling approaches. Here, we provide a brief overview of the programme, as well as a summary of some of the scientific progress achieved during its first half. Advances range from new evidence of the importance of specific processes in Southern Ocean ventilation rate (e.g. storm-induced turbulence, sea-ice meltwater fronts, wind-induced gyre circulation, dense shelf water formation and abyssal mixing) to refined descriptions of the physical changes currently ongoing in the Southern Ocean and of their link with global climate. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Heat and carbon uptake in the Southern Ocean: the state of the art and future priorities'.

Challenges of Changing Water Sources for Human Wellbeing in the Arctic Zone of Western Siberia

The availability of clean drinking water impacts the quality of life of Arctic populations and is affected by climate change. We provide perceptions based on: (1) a study of the accessibility of the natural surface water to the nomadic and settled Indigenous inhabitants living in rural areas (in settlements and remote camps) in the Arctic zone of Western Siberia during climate change and industrial development; (2) an assessment of the impact of consuming different surface water resources on human health. We include primary data sources from medical examinations and surveys collected in the regions between the rivers of Ob, Nadym, Taz, and Yenisey in 2012, 2014–2019, and 2022 whereas the chemical analysis of the surface waters in the region was based on previous research. A total of 552 local residents from the Arctic zone of Western Siberia participated in the study. We discuss how the availability of high-quality drinking water is limited for them due to climatic and anthropogenic risks, despite the abundant water resources. The consumption of river water is associated with high health risks since it contains heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Mn, Fe), whereas the consumption of lake ice melt water likely affects health because of the low concentrations of beneficial ions.

Data and software for Dickson et al. (Gullies on Mars formed by melting of water ice during periods of high obliquity)

Data and software for Dickson et al. (Gullies on Mars formed by melting of water ice during periods of high obliquity)

Data and software for Dickson et al. (Gullies on Mars formed by melting of water ice during periods of high obliquity)

Data and software for Dickson et al. (Gullies on Mars formed by melting of water ice during periods of high obliquity)

Data and software for Dickson et al. (Gullies on Mars formed by melting of water ice during periods of high obliquity)

Data and software for Dickson et al. (Gullies on Mars formed by melting of water ice during periods of high obliquity)