Meleagris Gallopavo Intermedia Research Articles

Genetic Composition of Wild Turkeys in Kansas Following Decades of Translocations

The lack of adequate documentation of wildlife translocations, particularly details regarding the source stock used, have potentially serious implications for wildlife management. Poor documentation of translocations may lead to unintentional mixing of distinct types, potentially causing problems for future management, design of harvest programs, and evolutionary stability. In Kansas, we employed molecular tools and assignment methods to uncover the cryptic distribution of wild turkey subspecies resulting from decades of poorly documented translocations. Pure forms of Eastern (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) and Rio Grande turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia) remain in many portions of the state, and future translocation programs now have the option to keep these distinct by prohibiting translocations between regions containing different subspecies. In addition, we documented 3 zones of hybridization: 1) at the interface between Eastern and Rio Grande subspecies, 2) in southwest Kansas where immigrant Merriam's turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo merriami) are mixing with translocated Rio Grande turkeys, and 3) surrounding an undocumented translocation of Eastern turkeys within a region characterized primarily by Rio Grande turkeys. The DNA-based techniques employed in this study were extremely informative tools for characterizing the distribution of wild turkeys in Kansas and suggest that such tools could be applied in a multitude of similar situations in other wildlife species.

Comparison of Two Techniques for Assessing Invertebrate Availability for Wild Turkeys in Texas

Although the importance of invertebrates to young galliforms has been demonstrated by numerous researchers, few comparisons of techniques designed to assess invertebrate availability for these species have been published. Our objective was to compare suction sampling and sweep-netting as methods for evaluating invertebrates available for Rio Grande wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia) poults on the Edwards Plateau of Texas, USA. We collected invertebrates via sweep-netting (n = 102) and suction sampling (n = 100) during summers 2002 and 2003 at brood locations. Suction sampling collected the same orders of invertebrates as sweep-netting, but invertebrate dry mass and frequency of occurrence were lower for nearly every order compared to sweep-netting. Suction sampling provided no additional information to that obtained by sweep-netting in the broken grasslands where our study was conducted. For this reason, we believe the additional cost and time required to implement this technique was not warranted for our study areas.

Evaluation of Portable Infrared Cameras for Detecting Rio Grande Wild Turkeys

Observing nocturnal, cryptic, highly mobile, or elusive wildlife in the field is difficult. Precise abundance estimates are necessary to make management decisions. Numerous methods have been examined to estimate wild turkey abundance with limited success. The use of forward-looking infrared (FLIR) technology has increased and may improve the detection of wildlife. We sought to estimate Rio Grande wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia) abundance using FLIR surveys and to assess the accuracy of these estimates by comparing them with independent estimates from ground surveys. We conducted 8 ground and aerial FLIR surveys of roost sites in 3 distinct ecological regions of Texas, USA. We were unable to aerially detect roosting turkeys using the portable FLIR camera because of altitudinal restrictions required for safe helicopter flight and lack of thermal contrast. Flight altitude was a principal obstacle because topography and aerial obstructions (i.e., utility poles, towers, and wires) often required higher-altitude flights than ideal for turkey observation. From an aerial perspective, wild turkey thermal signatures were camouflaged by their surroundings. The external temperatures of turkeys, tree branches, and other background objects (e.g., rocks, bare ground) were within 1.5°C of each other despite ambient temperatures or other weather variables (i.e., wind speed, humidity, and cloud cover). Therefore, there was not sufficient difference in radiant temperature of a turkey and its background to permit adequate detection from an aerial perspective.

WILD TURKEY (MELEAGRIS GALLOPAVO) AS A HOST OF IXODID TICKS, LICE, AND LYME DISEASE SPIROCHETES (BORRELIA BURGDORFERI SENSU LATO) IN CALIFORNIA STATE PARKS

Rio Grande wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia) were evaluated as potential hosts of ixodid ticks, lice, and Lyme disease spirochetes (Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato [s.l.]) in three state parks in Sonoma County, California, USA, during 2003 and 2004. In total, 113 birds were collected, 50 (44.2%) of which were found to be infested by 361 ixodid ticks representing three species: the western black-legged tick (Ixodes pacificus, n=248), the rabbit tick (Haemaphysalis leporispalustris, n=112), and one American dog tick (Dermacentor variabilis). Year-round the prevalence of all ticks combined was unrelated to the age or sex of turkeys, and the prevalence of infestation by I. pacificus (35.4%) was significantly higher than it was for either H. leporispalustris (14.2%) or D. variabilis (0.9%). The proportion of the two prevalent tick species differed significantly by life stage with 86.3% of the I. pacificus and 82.1% of the H. leporispalustris enumerated being nymphs and larvae, respectively. Three species of lice were collected, including the chicken body louse Menacanthus stramineus (12.5% of total), Chelopistes meleagridis (37.5% of total), and Oxylipeurus polytrapezius (50% of total). The records for all three ticks are the first ever from wild turkeys, and those for the lice are the first from this host in the far-western United States. Wild turkeys potentially were exposed to the feeding activities of I. pacificus nymphs infected with B. burgdorferi s.l. as 15% of host-seeking nymphs (n=200) collected in woodlands used by turkeys as roosting or foraging areas were infected mainly with B. burgdorferi sensu stricto (s.s.). However, only one (1%) of 90 turkey blood specimens tested by PCR contained B. burgdorferi s.s., and four in vitro, complement-protein assays demonstrated that domestic turkey serum is moderately bacteriolytic for this spirochete. Taken together, these findings indicate that wild turkeys are important avian hosts of I. pacificus nymphs, but they appear to be inconsequential hosts of B. burgdorferi s.l.

Poult Adoption and Nest Abandonment by a Female Rio Grande Wild Turkey in Texas

While evaluating reproductive parameters in Rio Grande Wild Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia) in the Edwards Plateau region of Texas, we observed a case of poult adoption and abandonment of an active nest. In wild turkeys, adoption of poults has been described previously, but during our observation the hen also abandoned her nest at a late stage of incubation. Most research discussing adoption in gallinaceous birds has focused on brood abandonment after hatch. Although poult adoption in conjunction with nest abandonment is probably rare, our observations indicate that it can occur, at least in Rio Grande Wild Turkeys.

The relationship of Rio Grande wild turkey distributions to roads

Wildlife Society Bulletin 2005, 33(2):745–748 Peer refereed Distance sampling from roads is a common population estimation technique used for many wildlife species (Brennan and Block 1986, DeYoung and Priebe 1987, Borralho et al. 1996, Dahlheim et al. 2000). A critical assumption of the distance sampling technique is that the distribution of animals is not influenced by the transect, but this assumption may be violated if the transect is a road (Burnham et al. 1980, Buckland et al. 2001, Williams et al. 2001). Attraction of target animals to the transect will result in inflated population estimates, and withdrawal from the transect will bias the estimates low (Verner 1985,Thompson et al. 1998, Buckland et al. 2001). Many authors have suggested line transects should not be positioned along roadways unless individuals are randomly distributed across the landscape (Burnham et al. 1980, Buckland et al. 2001, Williams et al. 2001). Male Rio Grande wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia) likely use roads as display sites in south Texas; thus, population surveys using roads should be conducted outside of the breeding season to reduce the probability of wild turkeys being attracted to roads (DeYoung and Priebe 1987). Eastern wild turkeys (M. g. silvestris) in Virginia used areas >450 m from roads more than expected and areas <150 m from roads in proportion to availability (McDougal et al. 1990). In Arizona, male Merriam’s wild turkeys (M. g. merriami) used areas <200 m from roads less than expected (Rogers et al. 1999). However, none of those studies examined the relationship of roads to wild turkey distributions during specific seasons and time periods. Our objectives were to quantify the association of male and female Rio Grande wild turkeys to roads according to season and time of day, and examine the potential biases of using roads as transects for distance sampling. We conducted this research in order to help develop appropriate protocols for distance sampling of Rio Grande wild turkeys from roads.

Survival of Rio Grande Wild Turkey chicks

Knowledge of chick survival rates is required to develop species-specific habitat-survival relationships. We determined pre-flight daily survival of Rio Grande Wild Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia) chicks from hatching to time of tree roost at four sites in southwestern Kansas and the Texas Rolling Plains, May–August, 2000 and 2001. One-hundred twenty-three chicks from 39 broods were equipped with cyanoacrylate-attached transmitters. The first day of brood tree-roost ranged from 9–16 d after hatching. Chick survival to 16 d of age ranged from 0.11 to 0.67. One-hundred percent of mortalities in 2000 and 70% of mortalities in 2001 for chicks 0–16 d old occurred <10 d after hatching. Survival at two of four sites was higher for 10–16 d-old chicks than 0–9 d-old chicks. Combining different survival periods may cause biased results when examining habitat-survival relationships.

Comparison of Microhabitat Conditions at Nest Sites Between Eastern (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) and Rio Grande Wild Turkeys (M. g. intermedia) in Northeastern South Dakota

Rio Grande wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia) were trapped in Oklahoma and released in northeastern South Dakota during the early 1970s. Based on wintering counts, this population peaked at over 1000 birds in the mid 1980s, but steadily declined to <200 in 1996. This decline prompted the introduction of eastern wild turkeys (M. g. silvestris), which were indigenous to southeastern South Dakota, as a replacement subspecies. We compared nest site characteristics of translocated eastern wild turkeys with those of established Rio Grande wild turkeys. Over a 2 y period we radio-marked 23 eastern females, and 21 Rio Grande females. Eastern females initiated 45 nests, whereas Rio Grande females initiated 41 nests. Vegetation type selection for nest sites (e.g., woodland, grassland and shrub) did not differ between Rio Grande and eastern wild turkeys (P = 0.96). However, turkey nest sites (subspecies pooled) differed from paired reference sites by having: (1) more nest sites directly under shrubs (P < 0.001) within woodlands and shrublands, (2) more trees within 1 m of the nest bowl (P = 0.001) in woodlands and (3) greater cover above the nest bowl (P = 0.007) within grasslands and shrublands. Frequency of vegetation types selected by female wild turkeys of both subspecies as nest sites differed (P = 0.001) from the frequency of vegetation types randomly sampled. Although shrub vegetation types were least available, females selected shrub vegetation types (primarily western snowberry [Symphoricarpos occidentalis]) for the majority (53%) of nest initiations. Other nests were divided between woodlands (27%) and grasslands (20%). Nest success was not correlated with vegetation type.

Survival of Female Rio Grande Turkeys during the Reproductive Season

We estimated mortality specific to dispersal, nesting, and brood-rearing activities (15 Mar-15 Aug) for 118 female Rio Grande wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia) in south-central Kansas from 2 February to 15 August 1991 (n = 40) and 8 January to 5 September 1992 (n = 78) to better understand the effect of these activities on survival during the reproductive season. Female survival from January through August was 54.7% (SE = 0.047) and survival during the reproductive season was 62.1% (SE = 0.047). Juvenile females dispersed (? = 11.51 km) longer distances (P = 0.014) than adult females (? = 6.16 km). We found no relationship between dispersal distance and survival for adults (P = 0.54) or juveniles (P = 0.15) during the reproductive season. Dispersal information could be used by managers as a guideline to establish management unit boundaries for harvest and habitat management activities. Survival (0.742) of females incubating first nests of the year was lower (P = 0.033) than survival (0.933) of females incubating second or third nests of the year. The influence of spring and early summer rains on vegetational communities may have been responsible for the higher survival probability of renesting females.

Genetic Structure of Reintroduced Rio Grande Wild Turkeys in Kansas

We investigated genetic structure within and among wintering flocks of Rio Grande wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia) to assess the importance of local individual flocks to managing and conserving genetic diversity of the wild turkey. We documented genetic differences among 4 local flocks of female turkeys reintroduced in south-central Kansas. We estimated that ≥2% (P < 0.001) of the total genetic variation observed is partitioned among the 4 wintering flocks sampled. Analysis of a wintering flock sampled in 1991 and 1992 indicated no change in gene frequencies between years (P = 0.65). Spatial genetic differentiation of Rio Grande turkeys may be the result of breeding tactics and occurrence of family groups on wintering areas. In this study genetic variation appeared to be conserved within flocks of Rio Grande wild turkeys.

Hematozoan parasites of Rio Grande wild turkeys from southern Texas.

One hundred twenty-three of 300 blood samples (41%) taken from Rio Grande wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia) from three locations in southern Texas (Welder Wildlife Refuge, Chaparrosa Ranch, and Campo Alegre Ranch) and subinoculated into domestic broad-breasted white turkey poults were positive for a Plasmodium (Novyella) sp. Analysis of blood films from 350 turkeys revealed Haemoproteus meleagridis in 76% of the birds. A significantly greater mean parasite intensity was observed in birds from Welder Wildlife Refuge. Birds from the Campo Alegre Ranch exhibited a significantly higher prevalence of H. meleagridis than birds from Chaparrosa. The Plasmodium sp. was infective for canaries (Serinus canaria), bobwhites (Colinus virginianus), and ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus), but would not produce infection in white leghorn chickens (Gallus gallus) or Coturnix quail (Coturnix coturnix). Attempts to infect Culex tarsalis and C. pipiens were unsuccessful. Asexual erythrocytic synchrony was not observed when blood-induced infections were monitored in two domestic turkey poults every 4 hr for 72 hr. Exoerythrocytic stages were not found upon examination of impression smears and tissue samples taken from brain, liver, spleen, kidney, lung, and bone marrow. The Plasmodium sp. is most similar morphologically to three species in the subgenus Novyella, P. hexamerium, P. vaughani, and P. kempi. The most striking similarities are to P. hexamerium, and involve mean merozoite number, erythrocytic schizont location, and vertebrate host susceptibility. It differs from P. vaughani in being able to infect turkeys and in type of parasitized erythrocytes. Differences to P. kempi include mean merozoite number, and ability to infect pheasants, and its inability to develop in C. pipiens and C. tarsalis.

Serologic response of Rio Grande wild turkeys to experimental infections of Mycoplasma gallisepticum.

The serologic response of Rio Grande wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia) to Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) was determined. Free-ranging turkeys were caught in southern Texas, shipped to the University of Wisconsin, Madison, and housed in isolation facilities. Fourteen birds were exposed to MG, by intratracheal and intranasal inoculation. Eight birds received sterile broth only. Two wk prior to the end of the experiment, MG exposed turkeys were stressed by challenge with a serologically unrelated mycoplasma. Serum from all exposed birds reacted positively for MG antibody by the rapid plate agglutination (RPA) procedure within 2 mo postexposure (PE) and all but one remained positive for 14 mo PE. Less than one half of the exposed birds developed positive MG antibody titers detectable by the hemagglutination inhibition (HI) test within 2 mo PE, and by 10 mo PE, none had positive titers. Antibody was detected by the HI test in two of 11 infected turkeys, 14 mo PE, and titers increased significantly within 2 wk. MG was isolated from tracheal swabs from two infected birds 2 mo PE, but attempts thereafter failed. However, at the termination of the experiment 15 mo later, MG was isolated from lung tissue of three of 11 exposed turkeys and from a blood clot found in the lower trachea of one bird.

Nesting Ecology of Rio Grande Turkeys

The nesting ecology of Rio Grande turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia) was studied on the Rob and Bessie Welder Wildlife Refuge (WWR), Sinton, Texas, during January-August 1983 and 1984. Radio telemetry was used to monitor the nesting activities of turkey hens. Twelve of 31 radio-tagged turkeys died during the study: 8 from predation, 1 from disease, 2 from trapping related injuries, and 1 from unknown causes. An annual hen survival rate of 0.73 was calculated from the total number of observation days and the known number of deaths. Ten (58%) of 17 instrumented hens reached incubation in 1983, but all nests were destroyed by predators. Two turkey broods were observed in 1983, one of 2 hens with 5 poults, the other 2 hens with 3 poults. In 1984, nesting data were gathered on 6 hens which reached incubation; 3 hatched eggs. Seven turkey broods totaling 8 hens with 40 poults were observed in August 1984. Nest sites were located in pastures deferred from livestock grazing. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 51(2):435-439 The population of wild Rio Grande turkeys, which occupies the Aransas River bottoms and surrounding uplands of the WWR, has declined from a high of approximately 700 (Watts 1969) in 1966-67 to <100 birds in 1983. In recent years, no broods have been observed by WWR personnel (J. G. Teer, pers. commun.). Although there have been several studies of the wild turkey on the WWR (Watts 1969, Smith 1977, Baker 1979b), none has directly investigated the nesting ecology of this population. Decreases in nesting attempts, nest success, or poult survival-all of which influence juvenile recruitment-could have played a part in this decline. This study was to determine whether reproductive failures by turkey hens wintering and breeding on the WWR and adjacent areas were responsible for the population decline. Financial support was provided by the Rob and Bessie Welder Wildl. Found. (WWF), Sinton, Tex., and the Coll. Agric. and Life Sci., Univ. Wisconsin, Madison. We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of several WWF students, as well as J. G. Teer, D. L. Drawe, and T. M. Yuill in trapping birds. We thank J. F. Rooke, P. H. Welder, H. Thomas, and N. E. Adams for access to their property. We also wish to thank W. Aschenbeck, of Cuero, Tex., for donating the domestic turkey eggs used in the simulated nest study. This is Welder Wildl. Contrib. 301.

Prevalence of Certain Antibodies to Selected Disease-Causing Agents in Wild Turkeys in Texas

In Texas in 1976 and 1977, Rio Grande turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia) from seven counties and Eastern turkeys (M. g. silvestris) from one county were tested for antibodies to selected poultry pathogens. Standardized serological tests disclosed reactors to Salmonella pullorum (2.4%), S. typhimurium (2.3%), and Mycoplasma gallisepticum (4.8%). There were no reactors to Newcastle disease virus or Chlamydia psittaci. Prevalence of M. gallisepticum antibody in wild turkeys was significantly higher for counties with commercial turkey operations than for counties lacking domestic turkeys, whereas the incidence of S. pullorum and S. typhimurium did not differ significantly.

Selectivity of Predator Control Techniques in South Texas

During a comprehensive study to determine the role of predation in reducing the productivity of the wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia), data were gathered on the selectivity and efficiency of M-44's, hunting, strychnine baits, and steel traps for taking certain predators. Selectivity is that property of taking only target species which, for the present study, were coyotes (Canis latrans), bobcats (Lynx rufus), and other small predatory furbearers. The M-44 and hunting were the most selective methods, each taking only target species. Strychnine baits and steel traps took a variety of animals including game animals, raptors, rodents, song birds, and reptiles. The M-44 was probably the most efficient tool for taking coyotes while bobcats were taken more efficiently with steel traps. Nontarget species in one area may be target species in another area so care should be exercised in generalizing about selectivity of predator control techniques. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 38(4):837-844 Recent reports by Leopold (1964) and Cain et al. (1972) have been critical of many aspects of the predator control program as conducted in the United States. Their discussions concern, in large part, the misuse and overuse of predator control methods in the western United States to control coyotes. They state that as a result of these control efforts many animals (nontarget species) besides coyotes are killed or injured because the control techniques are unselective. Of particular interest here is their discussion concerning the nonselectivity of steel traps, various poisons, and cyanide guns (including M-44's). A review of the literature reveals a striking paucity of published objective studies on selectivity of predator control techniques. Robinson presents some data provided by government trappers in Colorado, Wyoming, and New Mexico listing various animals taken by steel traps (1961), by thallium and compound 1080 (1948), and steel traps and cyanide guns (1943). Balser et al. (1968) list potential nest predators killed by strychnine eggs in Minnesota. The purpose of this paper is not to argue for or against predator control but to provide quantitative information in analyzing selectivity of several predator control techniques. This research was conducted as a part of a more comprehensive study designed to determine the role of predation in the productivity of wild turkeys and not simply as an exercise of predacide. The research was supported financially by the Caesar Kleberg Research Program in Wildlife Ecology through the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, College Station. The King Ranch, Inc., was helpful in providing the area and many facilities. M. Caroline and the Division of Wildlife Services of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service are gratefully acknowledged for providing much of the equipment used in this study. W. H. Kiel, Jr., gave many helpful suggestions in the preparation of the manu-

Relationships between Predator Removal and White-Tailed Deer Net Productivity

This study was conducted to determine the impact of predation on productivity of whitetailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in South Texas by removing predators from one area and comparing the results to a control area. A total of 188 coyotes (Canis latrans) and 120 bobcats (Lynx rufus) were removed during predator removal efforts on the approximately 5,400-acre (2,186-ha) experimental area from 1 February to 30 June 1971 and 1972. Aerial counts in 1971, a severe drought year, revealed a fawn:doe ratio of 0.47 in the experimental predator removal area compared to 0.12 in the control area. In 1972 more favorable climatic conditions led to higher deer productivity in both areas, but the relative difference between the two areas was maintained. The experimental area had a fawn:doe ratio of 0.82 compared to 0.32 on the control area. Counts from roads indicated a decline in fawn:doe ratio with increasing distance from the experimental area. These data indicate that deer populations in this locality could be increased with a very intensive predator control program. To justify such a predator control program on the basis of present information, however, a more intensive hunter harvest would probably be required to hold the deer herd below the density level where starvation, diseases, or other factors begin to take their toll. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 38(4):854-859 Regardless of underlying circumstances, certain canid predators have at times developed a specialization for preying on ungulates to the point of drastically curtailing the population (Errington 1946). Selecting against the young of these conspicuous, relatively slow-breeding forms would be potentially very destructive (Allee et al. 1949:374). That predators can specialize by preying on the young of an ungulate species has been suggested by studies involving the coyote and antelope (Antilocapra americana) in Texas (Jones 1949) and Arizona (Arrington and Edwards 1951), the lynx (Lynx canadensis) and caribou (Rangifer tarandus) in Newfoundland (Bergerud 1971), the black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) and blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi) in South Africa (du Plessis 1972), and the coyote and whitetailed deer in South Texas (White 1966:83, Knowlton 1968). Recent studies with ear-marked (Knowlto 1964) and radio-tagged (Cook et al. 1971) white-tailed deer fawns on the Welder Wildlife Refuge in South Texas have suggested that coyote predation was responsible for substantial juvenile mortality, and that this was likely the major factor stabilizing the dense and generally healthy deer herd on the refuge. Speculation has arisen concerning the fate of white-tailed deer fawns in other portions of South Texas. On th Ki g Ranch in Kleberg County the deer population is maintained at around 3-6 deer per 100 acres (40.5 ha) (Kiel, unpublished data). On other areas of the Rio Grande Pla n of South Texas an average of 3.5-5.5 deer per 100 acres exists (Harwell and Kierce 1972), whereas on the Welder Refuge pproximately 15-18 deer per 100 acres are fo nd (Cook et al. 1971). The deer population in much of the Central Mineral Region of Texas also approximates 18 per 100 acres (Teer et al. 1965). Teer et al. (1965) found average embryo counts for adult white-tailed deer to range from 0.96 to 1.29, whereas yearlings averaged 0.75. Average embryo counts of adult 1 Research supported by the Caesar Kleberg Research Program in Wildlife Ecology through the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station. 854 J. Wildl. Manage. 38 (4):1974 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.163 on Sun, 20 Nov 2016 04:24:27 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms PREDATOR REMOVAL AND DEER o Beasom 855 deer in South Texas have been found to range between 1.24 and 1.81 per doe (Barron and Harwell 1973). Illige (1951) found an average production of 1.28 embryos per doe (adults and yearlings) in a county adjoining the present study area. Postpartum fawn:doe (including adults and yearlings) ratios in Kleberg County, South Texas, however, are rarely greater than 0.3 (Kiel, unpublished data). Evidence suggests that the relatively low whitetail net productivity is a result of high fetal or early postnatal mortality. This study originated as part of a more intensive study on Rio Grande wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia). It was designed to investigate the effects of predator removal on net productivity of both the turkey and white-tailed deer. Gratitude is extended to W. H. Kiel, Jr., biologist, King Ranch, Inc. who provided advice and assistance throughout the study. The enthusiastic field support of D. A. Stiles, J. C. Hutchinson, W. A. Sandifer, H. H. Haucke, R. G. Sims, R. L. Mitchell, and F. S. Guthery during certain phases of the project is gratefully appreciated. E. D. Ables offered many helpful suggestions on the preparation of the manuscript.

Predation by a White-Tailed Hawk and a Harris Hawk on a Wild Turkey Poult

On 6 May 1970, I observed a White-tailed Hawk (Buteo albicaudatus) and a Harris Hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus) attack and kill a six-day-old wild Turkey poult (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia). The incident occurred at 11:35 CDT on King Ranch, Inc., Kleberg County, Texas. The events prior to and after the incident are as follows. While observing a Turkey hen with poults, I noticed a White-tailed Hawk diving for the ground. It spread its wings and extended its feet just before landing on the Turkey poult. Two or three seconds after the White-tailed Hawk hit the poult, a Harris Hawk also landed on the poult. The hawks were facing each other on the ground with their feet grasping the young bird. The Turkey hen left her hiding place, some 25 m away, and flew directly toward the two hawks. As she approached, the hawks released the poult and took to the air with the Turkey hen in close pursuit. After chasing the hawks for some 20 m and flying to a height of approximately 45 m, at one time almost straight up, the hen glided to the ground and promptly returned to her previous hiding place. I believe this incident is of scientific interest for the following reasons: (1) it increases our knowledge of the White-tailed Hawk, a relatively unstudied species; (2) it illustrates an instance of direct competition between two species of raptors; and (3) it adds to the knowledge of predation on very young wild Turkeys.

A Serologic Study of Diseases in the Rio Grande Turkey

Sera from 202 Rio Grande turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia) live-trapped over a 3- year period (1963-65) on the Welder Wildlife Refuge in South Texas were subjected to serologic screen- ing for the presence of specific antibodies. Few or no serologic reactors were detected against eastern viral encephalitis, western viral encephalitis, California viral encephalitis, Venezuelan viral encephalitis, encephalomyocarditis, mycoplasmosis, and salmonellosis. The most significant serologic finding was the presence of antibodies to Newcastle disease, St. Louis viral encephalitis, ornithosis, and vesicular stoma- titis. The interpretation of these serologic results and the significance of these infections in wild tur- keys are discussed. Abstract: Sera from 202 Rio Grande turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia) live-trapped over a 3- year period (1963-65) on the Welder Wildlife Refuge in South Texas were subjected to serologic screen- ing for the presence of specific antibodies. Few or no serologic reactors were detected against eastern viral encephalitis, western viral encephalitis, California viral encephalitis, Venezuelan viral encephalitis, encephalomyocarditis, mycoplasmosis, and salmonellosis. The most significant serologic finding was the presence of antibodies to Newcastle disease, St. Louis viral encephalitis, ornithosis, and vesicular stoma- titis. The interpretation of these serologic results and the significance of these infections in wild tur- keys are discussed. LITERATURE CITED

Parasites of the Wild Turkey, Meleagris gallopavo intermedia Sinnet, from the Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge

Parasites of the Wild Turkey, Meleagris gallopavo intermedia Sinnet, from the Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge