Mediterranean Route Research Articles

Criminal synergies: Human smuggling and illicit organ removal on the Central Mediterranean route

The externalisation of European border controls in North Africa is represented and justified by European leaders as the antithesis to the business model of human smuggling and human trafficking. Rather than being in an antithetical relationship, I argue that the European Union is in a symbiotic relationship with criminal groups exploiting the (im)mobility of migrants for profit. My analysis is informed by 37 interviews with African migrants, organ brokers, migration brokers and humanitarian organisations. Their experiences reveal how the convergence of crime and immigration controls along the Central Mediterranean route has led to the development of criminal synergies between different illegal markets, i.e. human smuggling and illicit organ removal.

Dissecting the invasion history of Spotted-Wing Drosophila (Drosophila suzukii) in Portugal using genomic data

BackgroundThe invasive pest Spotted-Wing Drosophila, Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura), causes extensive damage and production losses of soft-skinned fruits. Native to Asia, the species has now spread worldwide, with first reports in Portugal in 2012. In this study, we focus on the genomic signatures of the recent Portuguese invasion, in the context of worldwide patterns established in previous works. We analyzed whole genome pool sequencing data from three Portuguese populations (N = 240) sampled in 2019 and 2021.ResultsThe correlation of allele frequencies suggested that Portuguese populations are related to South European ones, indicating a Mediterranean invasion route. While two populations exhibited levels of genetic variation comparable to others in the invasive range, a third showed low levels of genetic diversity, which may result from a recent colonization of the region. Genome-wide analyses of natural selection identified ten genes previously associated with D. suzukii’s invasive capacity, which may have contributed to the species’ success in Portugal. Additionally, we pinpointed six genes evolving under positive selection across Portuguese populations but not in European ones, which is indicative of local adaptation. One of these genes, nAChRalpha7, encodes a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, which are known targets for insecticides widely used for D. suzukii control, such as neonicotinoids and spinosyns. Although spinosyn resistance has been associated with mutations in the nAChRalpha6 in other Drosophila species, the putative role of nAChRalpha7 in insecticide resistance and local adaptation in Portuguese D. suzukii populations encourages future investigation.ConclusionsOur results highlight the complex nature of rapid species invasions and the role of rapid local adaptation in determining the invasive capacity of these species.

Interbreeding between farmers and hunter-gatherers along the inland and Mediterranean routes of Neolithic spread in Europe

The Neolithic (i.e., farming and stockbreeding) spread from the Near East across Europe since about 9000 years before the common era (BCE) until about 4000 yr BCE. It followed two main routes, namely a sea route along the northern Mediterranean coast and an inland one across the Balkans and central Europe. It is known that the dispersive behavior of farmers depended on geography, with longer movements along the Mediterranean coast than along the inland route. In sharp contrast, here we show that for both routes the percentage of farmers who interbred with hunter-gatherers and/or acculturated one of them was strikingly the same (about 3.6%). Therefore, whereas the dispersive behavior depended on the proximity to the Mediterranean sea, the interaction behavior (incorporation of hunter-gatherers) did not depend on geographical constraints but only on the transition in the subsistence economy (from hunting and gathering to farming) and its associated way of life. These conclusions are reached by analyzing the clines of haplogroup K, which was virtually absent in hunter-gatherers and the most frequent mitochondrial haplogroup in early farmers. Similarly, the most frequent Y-chromosome Neolithic haplogroup (G2a) displays an inland cline that agrees with the percentage of interbreeding reported above.

‘I found everything in them’: Formation of migrant networks and social capital

AbstractThis paper explores the issue of creation of migrant networks in different contexts along the Eastern Mediterranean route and the Balkans. Drawing on 27 qualitative interviews and ethnographic fieldwork, it uncovers the information about migration journeys and the ways how social capital is transferred among migrants. The paper sheds light on the role of social networks, their influence on strategies, behaviour patterns and resource allocation during migration. The findings underscore different benefits of using migrant networks, highlighting their role in providing crucial support as well as increasing safety and supporting migrants' well‐being. Moreover, the shared identity forged through these networks enhances migrants' resilience, empowering migrants to navigate challenges more effectively. These empirical findings challenge the narratives of migration being individualistic and contribute to the literature on creation, dynamics, and benefits of networks of irregular transit migration, highlighting the differences from other migrant networks.

Externalizing rescue operations at sea: The migration deal between Italy and Libya

Abstract Between 2010 and 2019, the global number of forcibly displaced individuals doubled, prompting countries to sign migration deals. Under these agreements, transit or origin countries halt migrants in exchange for support. The 2017 Italy–Libya deal outsourced search and rescue operations in the Central Mediterranean to the Libyan Coast Guard (LCG), aiming to stop migrants from reaching Italy. Using a spatial difference-in-differences design, we find an increase in the probability of observing a deadly incident in areas patrolled by the LCG post-deal. Descriptive evidence suggests a shift in routes, diverting a significant portion of migration to the Western Mediterranean Route.

SARS-CoV-2 genomic surveillance of migrants arriving to Europe through the Mediterranean routes.

The implementation genomic-based surveillance on emerging severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants in low-income countries, which have inadequate molecular and sequencing capabilities and limited vaccine storage, represents a challenge for public health. To date, there is little evidence on molecular investigations of SARS-CoV-2 variants in areas where they might emerge. We report the findings of an experimental SARS-CoV-2 molecular surveillance programme for migrants, refugees, and asylum seekers arriving to Europe via Italy through the Mediterranean Sea. We descriptively analysed data on migrants collected at entry points in Sicily from February 2021 to May 2022. These entry points are integrated with a network of laboratories fully equipped for molecular analyses, which performed next-generation sequencing and used Nextclade and the Pangolin coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) tools for clade/lineage assignment. We obtained 472 full-length SARS-CoV-2 sequences and identified 12 unique clades belonging to 31 different lineages. The delta variant accounted for 43.6% of all genomes, followed by clades 21D (Eta) and 20A (25.4% and 11.4%, respectively). Notably, some of the identified lineages (A.23.1, A.27, and A.29) predicted their introduction into the migration area. The mutation analysis allowed us to identify 617 different amino acid substitutions, 156 amino acid deletions, 7 stop codons, and 6 amino acid insertions. Lastly, we highlighted the geographical distribution patterns of some mutational profiles occurring in the migrants' countries of origin. Genome-based molecular surveillance dedicated to migrant populations from low-resource areas may be useful for forecasting new epidemiological scenarios related to SARS-CoV-2 variants or other emerging pathogens, as well as for informing the updating of vaccination strategies.

One Thousand Years of Mediterranean Silver Trade to the Levant: A Review and Synthesis of Analytical Studies

AbstractSilver exchanged by weight for its intrinsic value was the most important measure of value and means of payment in the southern Levant, starting from the Middle Bronze Age II–III through the Iron Age (~1700/1650‒600 BC). Since silver is not available locally in the Levant, its ongoing use as currency in the region triggered long-distance trade initiatives, and its availability or lack thereof had a direct impact on the economy. The continued use is evidenced in 40 silver hoards found in various sites across the region. A comprehensive study of lead isotopes and chemical analyses of samples obtained from 19 hoards enabled us to trace the origin of silver in the millennium during which it was extensively used as currency in the southern Levant and to identify constantly changing silver sources and concomitant trade routes. The results indicate that silver originated initially in Anatolia and Greece (~1700/1650–1600 BC) and shortly after from an unknown location in the Aegean/Carpathian/Anatolian sphere (~1600–1200 BC). After the collapse of Late Bronze Age Mediterranean trade routes, during Iron Age I (~1200–950 BC), there was a period of shortage. Silver trade was revived by the Phoenicians, who brought silver to the Levant from Sardinia and Anatolia (~950–900 BC), and later from Iberia (~900–630 BC). Further change occurred after the Assyrian retreat from the Levant, when silver was shipped from the Aegean (~630–600 BC). Following the devastation caused by the expanding Babylonian empire, silver consumption in the Levant practically ended for a century. Considering the isotopic results, combined with a detailed study of the context, chronology, and chemical composition, we demonstrate that all these factors are essential for the reconstruction of developments in the supply of silver in the southern Levant, and more generally. The changes in trade routes closely follow political and social transformations for over a millennium; exchange in this case was not only, not even mainly preconditioned by the environmental/geographic circumstances, as has often been argued for the Mediterranean. From an analytical point of view, we offer a protocol for the provenance of silver in general.

Liner shipping network vulnerability to component disruptions: A China-Europe container flow analysis

This study conducts a vulnerability analysis of the China-Europe liner shipping network, including all relevant liner shipping services and China Railway Express services. The standard multicommodity network flow model is extended to assess network vulnerability and the relative importance of ports and services by simulating container flow redistribution in various disruption scenarios. The results show the network is highly resilient to both individual port disruptions and individual service disruptions. Additionally, the distinct shipping network structures of the three shipping alliances result in varying degrees of vulnerability, highlighting the significance of diversified market suppliers in enhancing the overall network resilience. Specifically, the Ocean Alliance is vital in facilitating China-Europe trade, especially along the Mediterranean route, and is more resilient to individual port disruptions.

New Odysseys or from Mare Nostrum towards Mare Monstrum? (The) Mediterranean Route(s) in Selected Examples of Contemporary German Literature

New Odysseys or from Mare Nostrum towards Mare Monstrum? (The) Mediterranean Route(s) in Selected Examples of Contemporary German Literature

Anatomically modern human dispersals into Europe during MIS 3: Climate stability, paleogeography and habitat suitability

The initial large-scale dispersal of Anatomically Modern Humans (AMHs) into Europe, associated with the Aurignacian technocomplex, occurred during Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS 3), a critically unstable climatic period. The impact of climate change (millennial-scale Dansgaard-Oeschger events) and climate variability (annual and seasonal variation) on the mobility and initial dispersal of AMHs on the continent is not fully demonstrated. Here we show that both climate change and variability affected the spatial behavior of Aurignacian groups and structured their arrival on the continent. Using Random Forest, a machine learning algorithm, we produced habitat suitability (HS) models for AMHs under stadial (GS) and interstadial (GI) climate conditions. These models demonstrate that climate variability was a key factor governing the spatial behavior of human groups across MIS 3. They also illustrate that the structure and distribution of suitable habitat in Europe were affected by climatic conditions, with implications in terms of our species’ adaptability and behavioral plasticity. Finally, our results support the suggestion that initial dispersals followed a Mediterranean coastal route, likely under interstadial conditions.

Exploring the ‘Blurred Boundary’: Human Smuggling and Trafficking on the Central Mediterranean Route to Europe

Exploring the ‘Blurred Boundary’: Human Smuggling and Trafficking on the Central Mediterranean Route to Europe

SARS-CoV-2 molecular surveillance of migrant populations arriving to Italy via the Mediterranean Sea: lessons learnt.

Refugees and migrants remain one of the most vulnerable people and the COVID-19 pandemic has posed additional challenges both in terms of increased risk of infection and death experienced, highlighting existing inequities in access to and utilization of health services, as underlined by World Health Organization in 2020 in the Health and Migration Programme. In the context of the Programme 'Epidemiological surveillance and control of COVID-19 in metropolitan urban areas and for the containment of the circulation of SARS-CoV-2 in the migrant population in Italy', coordinated by the Italian Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CCM) and funded by the Italian Ministry of Health, an experimental epidemiological, virological, and molecular SARS-CoV-2 surveillance system addressed to migrant populations in Sicily through Mediterranean routes was implemented. To this end, a multidisciplinary network supported by a hub&spoke system of laboratories was established in Sicily Region (Southern Italy), using molecular and Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) techniques to identify different SARS-CoV-2 strains in relation to migration flows. Herein, the lesson learnt through this integrated surveillance model, that was in place from February 2021 till the end of the COVID-19 emergency in Italy, are reported. Overall, the data emphasized the need for enhancing molecular surveillance in the areas of the globe where testing and sequencing resources are limited. The epidemiological, virological, and molecular SARS-CoV-2 monitoring, targeted to the migrant population, may also provide a valuable experimental model.

International migration and illegal costs: Evidence from Africa-to-Europe smuggling routes

The 2011 Arab Spring marked the opening of the Central Mediterranean Route for irregular border crossings between Libya and Italy, which produced heterogeneous reductions of bilateral smuggling distances between country pairs in the Mediterranean region. We exploit this source of spatial and temporal variation in bilateral distance along land and sea routes to estimate the elasticity of irregular migration intentions for African and Near East countries. We estimate an elasticity of migration intentions to smuggling distances exceeding −3, mainly driven by countries with weak rule of law and high internet penetration. Our findings are consistent across irregular migration measures both at the aggregate and individual levels. We show that irregular migration elasticity is higher for youth, relatively skilled individuals and those with an informative advantage (having a social network abroad or a mobile phone).

Strategic choices of migrants and smugglers in the Central Mediterranean sea.

The sea crossing from Libya to Italy is one of the world's most dangerous and politically contentious migration routes, and yet over half a million people have attempted the crossing since 2014. Leveraging data on aggregate migration flows and individual migration incidents, we estimate how migrants and smugglers have reacted to changes in the border enforcement regime, namely the rise in interceptions by the Libyan Coast Guard starting in 2017 and the corresponding decrease in the probability of rescue to Europe. We find support for a deterrence effect in which attempted crossings along the Central Mediterranean route declined, and a diversion effect in which some migrants substituted to the Western Mediterranean route. At the same time, smugglers adapted their tactics. Using a strategic model of the smuggler's choice of boat size, we estimate how smugglers trade off between the short-run payoffs to launching overcrowded boats and the long-run costs of making less successful crossing attempts under different levels of enforcement. Taken together, these analyses shed light on how the integration of incident- and flow-level datasets can inform ongoing migration policy debates and identify potential consequences of changing enforcement regimes.

Կիլիկիայի դասերը. մաս հինգերորդ / CILICIA LESSONS։ PART FIVE

Due to its geographical location, the Armenian state of Cilicia was located at the intersection of land and sea trade routes East-West. In other words, it played the role of a transit hub and therefore, in the context of the construction and implementation of the economic policy of the principality, and then the kingdom, this factor was considered the most important. During this period, the main port of trade routes connecting the East with European states and cities across the Mediterranean Sea became Cilician Aias, the economic importance of which was assessed both from a geopolitical and military-political point of view. As a crossroads, the role of Cilician Armenia became more valuable during the period of the Crusades, when the Mediterranean route began to transport soldiers participating in hostilities and the cargo necessary for their existence (food, weapons, ammunition). A number of Italian states, known for their merchant fleets (Venice, Genoa), as well as merchant groups of southern French cities (Marseille, Narbonne, Montpellier) were very interested in the uninterrupted operation of this sea route. The fifth part of the series of articles examines the economic policy implemented by Cilician Armenia, based on the fact that in this period the geopolitical, military and economic processes of the West-East were aimed at forming new rules of the “game”. At the same time, an attempt was made to reveal the strategic and tactical steps arising from the foreign and domestic economic policies pursued by the state, their direction and target accents, highlighting both positive and negative experiences.

“Time is on me”: Entangled Temporalities Between Italy and the Gambia

Gambian’s migration towards Europe, mainly constituted by young men, substantially increased since 2010. Arriving mainly through the Central Mediterranean Route because of the extremely scarce possibility to obtain a visa, most Gambians applied for asylum in Italy, the first arrival country according to the Dublin regulation. The administrative and juridical system largely rejected their asylum requests, leaving most undocumented, in legal limbo, and deportable. The paper focuses on the different trajectories of Gambians in Italy in their post-asylum phase, discussing how existential precariousness heavily shapes their lives and how this condition compromises future building along different but entangled temporalities. In particular, the contribution wants to reflect on the various intertwined timelines that people on the move forge and inhabit, showing how they are always multiple and articulated through spatial, social, cultural, economic, and personal dimensions. In so doing, I analyze temporal dispossession as a continuous process that Gambians on the move experience prior to, during, and after their trip to Europe and which they actively struggle to overcome.

Composition of Diverse Glass Material from the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Dubrovnik, Croatia

The article presents the first archaeometric investigation of the typologically and chronologically diverse assemblage of medieval and post-medieval glass from the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Dubrovnik, Croatia. Sixty samples, comprised of various vessels, lamps, beads, and window glass (oculi), and dated between the 12th and 18th century, were analysed with simultaneous PIGE-PIXE methods. The results show that most items were made with the ash of halophytic plants harvested in the Levant, but these can be divided into several compositional subtypes, among which white and common glass are the most numerous. Most glasses can be attributed to the north Italian or Levantine workshops; however, a few analysed samples are of the mixed-alkali type, façon de Venise, and Mesopotamian Type I glass. Furthermore, a few distinct samples were made with purer soda sources. The findings corroborate Dubrovnik’s strong cultural and economic links with the Venetian glassmaking tradition and underline the influence and preference of the Mediterranean seafaring trade routes over the continental European ones; an unsurprising fact, considering the status of the Dubrovnik Republic as a stronghold of maritime trade in the period.

EUROPEAN MIGRANT CRISIS: ANALYSIS OF MIGRATION ROUTES

The scientific article examines the main ways of migration to Europe from 2014 to 2020. As a result of the conducted research, the following conclusions were made in the scientific article. The migration crisis of 2015 put the issue of migration on the political agenda and revealed the shortcomings of the European Union, Frontex and EU Member States in their border management mechanisms. In 2015, more than one and a half million illegal border crossings were detected at the EU’s external borders, an all-time record. At a crucial moment in the migration crisis, Turkey was one of the main points of entry, with around 800,000 illegal migrants. This circumstance indicates the current impossibility of the European Union to curb illegal immigration in the absence of a strategic plan agreed with the member states poses a risk to internal security. The lack of a mechanism for solving such situations 17 This paper is partially based on the Doctoral Thesis "The borders of the European Union: Objectives and Measures to face its security" that Mr. Isaac de Toro Mezquita is researching at UCAM. 18 The author has been a SNE in FRONTEX and in the Frontiers Working Group. in 2020 shows the weakness of the European Union, especially in the face of possible migration situations at its external borders, the situation with which still remains fragile and unstable. The need to advance legislative priorities to optimize the management of external borders to reduce or eliminate migratory routes has become objective, but the only measure adopted by the European Union that has managed to curb illegal entry was the EU-TURKEY Agreement, which can be considered a special measure, and that makes the EU dependent on the political will of the Turkish government. The European Union particularly focused on the Mediterranean migration routes, where various maritime operations were carried out. This protection of external borders has forced the search for or restoration of new migration routes, such as the West African route, which has seen a significant increase, but we can also see a slight increase in the Western Balkan route. This shows the inability of the European Union to provide equal protection at all external borders, and that the measures taken by the European Border Guard appear to be ineffective.

Upholding Maritime Migrants’ Rights at the Borders of Europe – J.A. and Others v. Italy

Abstract Countless people have left the African continent seeking to reach European shores via the central Mediterranean Sea route, despite persistent efforts by Italian and EU authorities to counter migratory activities. International and regional human rights judicial bodies have provided some responses to the abuses faced by maritime migrants both at sea and on land throughout the years. In this case note, I analyze the judgment of the European Court of Human Rights in J.A. and Others v. Italy concerning the detention of maritime migrants in the Lampedusa hotspot center. To this end, I first illustrate the facts of the case. Second, I assess each claim made by the applicants in relation to the human rights abuses they suffered: inhuman and degrading treatment, arbitrary detention, and collective expulsion of aliens. I conclude that the judgment constitutes an important development in the Court’s case law upholding maritime migrants’ rights, albeit characterized by a few shortcomings. I also argue that the Court’s position as a human rights judicial body needs to be further strengthened in the future.

Search-and-rescue in the Central Mediterranean Route does not induce migration: Predictive modeling to answer causal queries in migration research

State- and private-led search-and-rescue are hypothesized to foster irregular migration (and thereby migrant fatalities) by altering the decision calculus associated with the journey. We here investigate this ‘pull factor’ claim by focusing on the Central Mediterranean route, the most frequented and deadly irregular migration route towards Europe during the past decade. Based on three intervention periods—(1) state-led Mare Nostrum, (2) private-led search-and-rescue, and (3) coordinated pushbacks by the Libyan Coast Guard—which correspond to substantial changes in laws, policies, and practices of search-and-rescue in the Mediterranean, we are able to test the ‘pull factor’ claim by employing an innovative machine learning method in combination with causal inference. We employ a Bayesian structural time-series model to estimate the effects of these three intervention periods on the migration flow as measured by crossing attempts (i.e., time-series aggregate counts of arrivals, pushbacks, and deaths), adjusting for various known drivers of irregular migration. We combine multiple sources of traditional and non-traditional data to build a synthetic, predicted counterfactual flow. Results show that our predictive modeling approach accurately captures the behavior of the target time-series during the various pre-intervention periods of interest. A comparison of the observed and predicted counterfactual time-series in the post-intervention periods suggest that pushback policies did affect the migration flow, but that the search-and-rescue periods did not yield a discernible difference between the observed and the predicted counterfactual number of crossing attempts. Hence we do not find support for search-and-rescue as a driver of irregular migration. In general, this modeling approach lends itself to forecasting migration flows with the goal of answering causal queries in migration research.