Medical Works Research Articles

Marvels of Medicine: Literature and Scientific Enquiry in Early Colonial Spanish America

Yarí Pérez Marín's examination of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century medical works aims to contextualize the literary and scientific contributions of Spanish writers with experiences in early colonial Spanish America. The work includes analysis of four medical practitioners with varying levels of education and training: Pedro Arias de Benavides, Alonso López de Hinojosos, Agustín Farfán, and Juan de Cárdenas. Studying these authors helps to counter teleological narratives of supremacy in knowledge production. Pérez Marín argues that these practitioners viewed themselves as “voices within a larger conversation on health and the human body” who “contest[ed] the supremacy of emerging marginalising colonial structures” (p. 6). Frustratingly, the imperial motherland failed to see these contributions in the same light.Drawing from extensive primary source material and in-depth historiographical analysis, Pérez Marín offers a contextual interpretation of colonial and imperial discourses that shaped the acceptance, rejection, or ambivalence toward works of science and medicine produced in the New World. The author emphasizes the narrative of civilizational superiority as inhibiting dissemination and cultural acceptance of New World scientific works. Such contributions were so often written off as “local ‘practices’ or ‘traditions’” and thus inherently “unscientific” (p. 10). Pérez Marín analyzes the role of race in the construction of differences between humans; she combines methodologies of both literary and cultural analysis to determine whether these New World works “chose to advance racialised models of human anatomy and physiology” (p. 14).Pérez Marín detects in the work of Pedro Arias de Benavides a growing displeasure with European exclusion of practitioners engaged in empirical work overseas. Benavides's Secretos de Chirurgia (Secrets of surgery), a hybrid surgical manual and book of secrets, offers life-size surgical illustrations and descriptive techniques to detail his myriad treatment of ailments in Honduras and later in Mexico. Benavides strongly emphasizes the role of experience in medical practice, arguing that importing samples of materia medica from the New World to Spain failed to satisfy epistemological standards. As Pérez Marín summarizes Benavides's argument, “In order to know or to speak of new worlds, one had to have lived in them” (p. 25).Pérez Marín's side-by-side comparison of Alonso López de Hinojosos's Svmma, y recopilacion de chirvgia (Surgical compendium) and Juan de Cárdenas's Primera parte de los problemas y secretos marauillosos de las Indias (First part of problems and marvelous secrets of the Indies) analyzes the colonial paradox of anatomy and physiology. Where anatomy emphasized a bodily template essentially free from influence of racial or ethnic background, physiology sought to determine measurable differences between ethnic compositions. The two disciplines diverged against the backdrop of growing mixed-race populations throughout the viceroyalties.Drawing from the colonial paradox established with López de Hinojosos and Cárdenas, Pérez Marín next brings gender and femininity into the discussion. From Agustín Farfán's Tractado breve de anothomia y chirvgia, y de algvnas enfermedades, que mas comunmente suelen hauer en esta Nueua España (Brief treatise on anatomy and surgery, and on some common illnesses found in this New Spain), Pérez Marín traces physiological interpretations of gestational processes that were thought to result in appearances that did not align with notions of femininity or masculinity. Ultimately, Pérez Marín determines that while Farfán's work did not drastically change anatomical or physiological interpretations of the body, it did create a place for women's voices in relation to their health, detailed at length in the Tractado.Finally, Pérez Marín looks more broadly at knowledge circulation between Spain and its empire, citing Cárdenas's critiques of scientific rigor. Like Benavides before him, Cárdenas questioned the superiority of European scientific endeavors that relied on imported specimens. This research from afar could not possibly replace the value of research conducted in situ. Questioning geographical and cultural identity rather than a criollo/peninsular designator, Cárdenas diverged from the narrative of superiority based on birthplace.Pérez Marín's work offers a valuable, rich interdisciplinary analysis of early colonial medical texts and their authors. The author's literary and historical contextualization of political, scientific, and cultural discourses that determined the fate of these men and their work is thorough and engaging. This book will be especially useful for scholars interested in viceregal medicine and circulation of knowledge.

The medieval cell doctrine: Foundations, development, evolution, and graphic representations in printed books from 1490 to 1630

ABSTRACT The medieval cell doctrine was a series of related psychological models based on ancient Greco-Roman ideas in which cognitive faculties were assigned to “cells,” typically corresponding to the cerebral ventricles. During Late Antiquity and continuing during the Early Middle Ages, Christian philosophers attempted to reinterpret Aristotle’s De Anima, along with later modifications by Herophilos and Galen, in a manner consistent with religious doctrine. The resulting medieval cell doctrine was formulated by the fathers of the early Christian Church in the fourth and fifth centuries. Printed images of the doctrine that appeared in medical, philosophical, and religious works, beginning with “graphic incunabula” at the end of the fifteenth century, extended and evolved a manuscript tradition that had been in place since at least the eleventh century. Some of these early psychological models just pigeonholed the various cognitive faculties in different non-overlapping bins within the brain (albeit without any clinicopathologic evidence supporting such localizations), while others specifically promoted or implied a linear sequence of events, resembling the process of digestion. By the sixteenth century, printed images of the doctrine were usually linear three-cell versions with few exceptions having four or five cells. Despite direct challenges by Massa and Vesalius in the sixteenth century, and Willis in the seventeenth century, the doctrine saw its most elaborate formulations in the late-sixteenth and early-seventeenth centuries with illustrations by the Paracelsan physicians Bacci and Fludd. Overthrow of the doctrine had to await abandonment of Galenic cardiovascular physiology from the late-seventeenth to early-eighteenth centuries.

Tayādhūq (Theodocus/Théodoros) and his role in the formation of Islamic medicine.

Tayādhūq, also known as Theodocus/Théodoros (d. early 8th century AD), was educated in the Gondēs̲h̲āpūr School and served the Sassanid kings. During this period, he contacted the Umayyad court and became the physician of Hajjāj ibn Yūsuf (d. 715 AD), the general governor of the Eastern regions of the caliphate. In addition to his knowledge on the Sassanid scientific tradition, Tayādhūq had a significant role in transferring this tradition to the Islamic world. His ideas were later followed by polymath physicians such as Rhazes (Abū Bakr al-Rāzī, d. 925 AD), Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā, d. 1037 AD), and others who lived after him. His medical works were of great importance to the development of early Islamic medicine. Therefore, this study will attempt to illuminate this forgotten scholar's medical knowledge, the works he produced, and finally illustrate his influences on later Muslim physicians.

Tibetan Medical Paradigms for the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic

Abstract As prophesized in early Tibetan medical works, the emergence of a pathogen such as SARS-CoV-2 that could inflict such a virulent infectious disease such as COVID-19 provided conditions for an expected yet alarming new phenomenon to threaten the health of inhabitants on the Tibetan Plateau. As SARS-CoV-2 spread into a global pandemic, Tibetan physicians worldwide engaged in symposiums, conferences, and clinical exchanges to situate the virus and its disease within Tibetan medical nosology. They sought to reconcile prophesies of global impact and develop critical treatment protocols for their communities. This article presents this particular perspective on COVID-19 as discussed among Tibetan medical colleagues in early April 2020, with follow-up discussions a year later. It introduces the disease’s nosology as a specific type of virulent infection (gnyan rims), and describes the etiology, diagnosis, and treatment as explicated in the Tibetan classic Four Medical Treatises and related commentaries. As Tibetan physicians gain attention for their treatments of mild- and medium-severity COVID-19 cases, understanding the Tibetan medical paradigm for the condition highlights distinctions of therapeutic and investigative relevance compared to biomedical and other traditional Asian medical approaches.

Exploration on the diagnosis and treatment of generalized myasthenia gravis with acupuncture and moxibustion based on the study of ancient medical works

Through collecting the relevant provisions and medical cases of wei syndrome treated with acupuncture and moxibustion from ancient medical works, the diagnosis and acupoint selection in treatment of generalized myasthenia gravis (gMC) with acupuncture and moxibustion were analyzed systematically from 3 aspects, i.e. meridian differentiation, disease differentiation and syndrome differentiation. In treatment based on meridian differentiation, the acupoints are selected in the light of the running course of meridian and characteristics of meridian disorders. In treatment based on disease differentiation, the acupoints are selected in accordance with etiology, pathogenesis and transmission stages of wei syndrome. Concerning to syndrome differentiation in treatment, the acupoints are selected on the basis of therapeutic principles determined by different syndromes/patterns of wei syndrome. In modern clinical practice, the treatment for gMC should be rooted at ancient literature, thus a standardized regimen can be developed for diagnosis and treatment with acupuncture and moxibustion.

Anxiety in the Wesleyan Spirit: A Core Theological Theme?

AbstractEighteenth‐century writer and reformer John Wesley does not use ‘anxiety’ in its modern philosophical or psychological sense. However, Wesley carefully distinguishes between forms of religious fear and ‘nervous disorders’ throughout his published theological and medical works, indicating the felt quality of anxiety as a central theme. This is evinced in his published journals, sermons such as ‘The Spirit of Bondage and of Adoption’ (1746), ‘The Wilderness State’ and ‘Heaviness through Manifold Temptations’ (both published in 1760), and less‐conspicuous works such as Primitive Physic (1747), ‘Thoughts on Nervous Disorders’ (1786), as well as his publication on electricity, The Desideratum: Or Electricity Made Plain and Useful (1759). Wesley’s treatment of ‘anxiety‐qualia’ as religious predicament and physical disorder is instructive in terms of placing Wesley vis‐à‐vis the backdrop of Enlightenment Europe and its scientific and philosophical interests, which has been the subject of recent historical and theological scholarship related to Wesley. Wesley was a preacher and revivalist to be certain, whose emphasis on perceptible inspiration and the assurance of faith cultivated a global Protestant denomination, but he was also a curious thinker with a fondness for science and faith, steeped in the intellectual developments of the North Atlantic, early‐modern world.

Silent Sources of the History of Epidemics in the Islamic World: Literature on Ṭāʿūn/Plague Treatises

From 1347 onwards, new literature emerged in the Islamic and Western worlds: the Ṭā‘ūn [Plague] Treatises. The literature in Islamdom was underpinned by three things: (i) Because the first epidemic was a phenomenon that had been experienced since the birth of Islam, ṭā‘ūn naturally occurred on the agenda of hadith sources, prophetic biography, and historical works. This agenda was reflected in the treatises as discussions around epidemics, particularly plague, as well as the fight against disease in general in a religious and jurisprudential framework. (ii) Works aimed at diagnosing the plague and dealing with various aspects of it tried to explain disease on the basis of Galenic-Avicennian medicine within the framework of miasma theory, thus deriving their basis from this medical paradigm. (iii) Finally, the encounter with such a brutal illness prompted a quest for all possible remedies, including the occultist culture. This background shaped the language and content of the treatises at different levels. This article first evaluates the modern studies on plague treatises written in the Islamic world. Then, it surveys the Islamic historical sources in order to pin down the meaning they assign to the concepts of wabā’ [epidemic disease] and ṭā‘ūn [plague]. Certain medical works that were the resources for medical doctrines and terminology for plague treatises are also evaluated with a focus on these two concepts. Thus, the aim of this survey is to understand the general conception of epidemic disease and plague in the Islamic world before the Black Death (1346-1353). I discuss and analyze the characteristics of the Ṭā‘ūn literature, which constitutes the main subject of the article and present a database on the literature. While the works from the Mamluk and Ottoman periods constitute a continuous tradition in some respects, Ottoman treatises differ from the Mamluk works in terms of certain features, especially content. Although this study touches on the common aspects of the works from the two periods, it instead analyzes this literature with a focus on points where the two traditions diverge.

PECULIARITIES OF COMBINED NEUROPROTECTION IN RECOVERED TREATMENT AFTER ICHEMIC STROKE

In our clinical study, we consider the features of combined neuroprotection in the rehabilitation treatment of patients with ischemic stroke. Modern world medicine quite often encounters cerebrovascular diseases, which are one of the most pressing problems of modern neurology, given the high prevalence of this pathology in the population. In most modern medical scientific works in the rehabilitation treatment of post-stroke patients, it is characterized by the introduction of combined neuroprotection, this approach, in our opinion, is the most effective in the rehabilitation treatment of patients. In our study, we prioritize the combined pharmacotherapy "Citicoline" in combination with the drug "Cortexin" as a priority in rehabilitation treatment. Thus, the aim of our study is the effectiveness of the combined pharmacotherapy "Citicoline" and "Cortexin" in the rehabilitation treatment of patients after ischemic stroke. In the course of the clinical study, we analyzed the obtained statistical data, which also confirm the effectiveness of the combined neuroprotection of citicoline and cortexin in restorative treatment in the rehabilitation period of ischemic stroke.

Moses Maimonides: leven en werk van een schitterend arts en filosoof

Moses Maimonides (1135 - 1204): life and work of a wonderful physician and philosopher Moses ben Maimon or Maimonides was probably born in 1135 in Cordoba. Being the son of a rabbi and judge he received an excellent education, mainly in the school of Lucena. The permanent changes in the Islamic world in Andalusia and the persecutions of the Jews made him emigrate to Fez in Morocco. At Al-Karaouine, one of the oldest universities of the world, he received a medical education by Avenzoar (1091-1161). Avenzoar was the first performer of tracheotomy and found the real origin of scabies. During his stay in Fez Maimonides also started his philosophical work. However, he again had to emigrate, this time he travelled to Acre. During a short stay there he visited Jerusalem in the Latin State. Maimonides continued his peregrination to Fustat in Egypt. There he became the wise man in Jewry. He was even the physician of the powerful Saladin himself. During the same period he wrote important medical books, covering the whole of medicine and emphasising beneficence in medical ethics. Maimonides died in 1204 and was buried in Tiberias, next to the Sea of Galilea as he requested. His medical works are well preserved and give a careful insight in the medical knowledge of the medieval Islamic period. They contain an integration of the medical science of the Classical period into the Judeo-Arabic world. Maimonides’ philosophical and rabbinical writings are universal and still studied today. His holistic vision and interest in the psychosomatic medicine make him a universal scientist.

Novel understanding of "acupuncture being for reducing rather than reinforcing": an analysis based on perspective and position

"Acupuncture being for reducing rather than reinforcing" is originated from the description in Danxi Xin Fa (Teachings of [Zhu] Dan-xi ) of the Ming dynasty. The understanding and evaluation of it by later physicians are generally limited to the knowledge system of acupuncture-moxibustion theory. Through the investigation from the context of the original text, the context of the original book, medical background and academic origin, the authors propose that this original phrase should be understood in view of novel perspective and position. From a larger perspective, it is necessary to base on the classification of excess or deficiency of disorders by the medical masters of the Jin and Yuan dynasties and the understanding of reinforcing and reducing techniques accordingly. In view of a relatively specific point, the influence of relevant academic knowledge of DOU Han-qing and LIU Wan-su in the related medical works should be also considered. It is suggested that the understanding of some judgments or propositions in ancient acupuncture-moxibustion theory should not be limited to the scope of knowledge system of the theory, but need to give the consideration and analysis from the full dimensions of traditional Chinese medicine.

Medical Humanism in the Making: Symphorien Champier (1471-1539) and Galen

This article explores various aspects of medical humanism through the figure of French polymath Symphorien Champier. A passeur of knowledge between the ancients and the moderns, as well as between Italy and France, Champier developed as a scholar in the wake of the unearthing of ancient medical works, notably Galen’s. This article reveals the interplay between Champier’s intellectual trajectory and the redicovery of Galen’s thought.

Moses Maimonides, “On the Regimen of Health”: A New Parallel Arabic-English Translation, ed. and trans. Gerrit Bos, with critical editions of medieval Hebrew translations by Gerrit Bos and Latin translations by Michael R McVaugh. (The Medical Works of Moses Maimonides 12.) Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2019. Pp. x, 540, 4 charts. $114. ISBN 978-9-0043-9405-6. Moses Maimonides, “On the Elucidation of

Moses Maimonides, <i>“On the Regimen of Health”: A New Parallel Arabic-English Translation</i>, ed. and trans. Gerrit Bos, with critical editions of medieval Hebrew translations by Gerrit Bos and Latin translations by Michael R McVaugh. (The Medical Works of Moses Maimonides 12.) Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2019. Pp. x, 540, 4 charts. $114. ISBN 978-9-0043-9405-6. Moses Maimonides, <i>“On the Elucidation of

Specialties and Medical Services in Andalusia From the Islamic Conquest to the Era of the Kings of the Taifas (92 AH - 422 AH / 711 AD - 1031 AD)

The medical movement in Andalusia was gradually developed in the period from (92-422/711-1031) until it reached a qualitative and scientific shift in its provision of medical services and the diversity of its specialties in the treatment of diseases. Medical specialties and services are among the most important achievements which Islamic medicine has reached. Doctors have developed these specialties through their medical works and innovations. And the role of the rulers in promoting the scientific movement has had a significant impact on this development.&#x0D; In this research we will talk about the specialties and services that were offered to the patients of Andalusia from the Islamic conquest to the era of the kings of the sects. The research consists of two sections, a summary and a conclusion and a list of sources and references.

The Four Principles of Medical Ethics in Le Huu Trac's Ideology

Le Huu Trac, whose nickname is Hai Thuong Lan Ong, is regarded as the ancestor of Vietnamese medicine. He passed on to the later generations many significant medical works with valuable remedies and wise words on medical ethics. His research on medical ethics has played a significant role in enhancing medical ethics for physicians today. The author follows a method of analysis, synthesis and comparison of data sources, in addition to using the logical method combining history, to study Le Huu Trac's medical ethics ideology through approaching the four principles of medical ethics. This is a general, popular and widely accepted approach in biomedical ethics research since the 1970s. The research result shows that the four medical ethics principles are expressed in Le Huu Trac's medical ethics ideology, in which the principles of beneficence and nonmaleficence tend to prevail over the principle of respect for autonomy.

Holisztikus vonások Pápai Páriz Ferenc „Pax animae” és „Pax corporis” című műveiben

Ferenc Pápai Páriz, son of a puritan pastor and author, Imre Pápai Páriz, was one of the most versatile figures of late 17th, early 18th century Transylvania. He got his M.D. degree in Basel, survived a great plague there, and became one of the true disciples of the famous Professor Henricus Glaserus, one of the victims of this murderous contagious illness. In the very rich list of the Pápai Páriz publications, there are poems, a biblical drama, entitled Isaac and Rebecca, and many medical and theological works. He was the professor of philosophy at the famous Reformed College of Nagyenyed, but the best-known and most widely quoted pieces written by him are the „twin volumes” of The Pax Corporis and Pax Animae. The first one became a very useful medical handbook and collection of therapies for those who were unable to reach or to afford any medical care. And, at the same time, the first one to deal with children’s and women’s diseases. Together with practical medical advice, he always carefully dealt with the problems of the human psyche. And in his Pax animae he was able to concentrate upon body and soul at the same time. That’s why we can call him „the father of holistic thinking and method” in Hungary and Transylvania. This philosophy and practice appears in the laudatory poems written about his books, by contemporary authors. For instance, a close friend and a patient of his, Miklós Tótfalusi Kiss, the well-known printer mentioned the Pax corporis – with great reverence – as „the Bible of the human body.”

The contribution of scholars to the anatomy of the eye and adnexa in islamic geography.

From the early period of Islam, Muslim scholars have translated the ancient Greek medical works, and they reached a much more advanced level. Blindness was a major cause of disability in all Islamic geography, so physicians from Islamic territory, particularly Yuhanna ibn Masawayh, Hunain Ibn Ishaq, Rhazes, Ali bin Isa, Ibn-i Sina, and Ibn Al-Haitam, were particularly focused on the anatomy of the eye and diagnosis and treatment of eye diseases. In this study, we aimed to report the contributions of the Muslim scholar on the anatomy of the eye and adnexa for the first time in the literature.

Buyang Huanwu Decoction ameliorates atherosclerosis by regulating TGF-β/Smad2 pathway to promote the differentiation of regulatory T cells

Ethnopharmacological relevanceAs a classic prescription of Traditional Chinese Medicine in Correction on the Errors of Medical Works, Buyang Huanwu Decoction (BYHWD) has a good curative effect on prevention of atherosclerosis (AS). Aim of the studyThis study aims to elucidate the anti-atherosclerosis mechanism of BYHWD, which may promote the differentiation of regulatory T cells by regulating the TGF-β/Smad2 pathway. Materials and methodsApoE-/- mice were fed a high-fat diet for 12 weeks, then drugs group were given BYHWD with intragastric administration once a day for 4 weeks. The effect of BYHWD on lipid content in peripheral blood and plaque was evaluated by blood lipid test and oil red O staining. The number of Tregs in peripheral blood was tested by flow cytometry, and that in the spleen was evaluated by immunohistochemistry methods. Gene and protein expression relating with Tregs differentiation pathway in mice were checked by RT-PCR and Western blot experiments. CD4+T cells were isolated and interfered by BYHWD drug-loaded serum. The proportion of Tregs was evaluated by flow cytometry. The chemical compositions of BYHWD and rat drug-loaded serum were analyzed by ultra-high performance liquid chromatograph and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. ResultsBYHWD significantly reduced plaque area and cholesterol accumulation, increased the number of Tregs in spleen and peripheral blood of ApoE-/- AS mice, raised the proportion of Tregs in CD4+T cells, and regulated the levels of inflammatory factors. It also increased the TGF-β and Smad2 mRNA and protein levels relating with Tregs differentiation pathway in vivo. The mRNA levels of Foxp3/TGF-β/Smad2 were enhanced via BYHWD in vitro. ConclusionsBYHWD regulates TGF-β/Smad2 signaling pathway to promotes the peripheral differentiation of Tregs, increases the number of Tregs, restores the immune balance between CD4+T cells, regulates lipid metabolism, inhibits inflammatory reaction and possesses the potential of enhancing plaque stability.

Loomad Rootsi-aegse Tartu ülikooli meditsiinitöödes

At the Swedish-period University of Tartu there were four medical works which described or mentioned animals in some connection. Animals were often used as metaphors in these works in order to draw parallels with humans. In this connection animals were rather considered to be inferior to humans as it was typical to the early modern period. In the medical works of the 17th century University of Tartu veterinary medicine is mentioned and also the use of animals as a source of remedies or even animals as their own doctors, teaching the humans how to heal certain diseases. There are hints to animals in scientific experiments. In the medical work Dissertatio prima de oeconomia corporis animalis, originating from 1698, the development of early modern physiology can be observed. There is a clear difference between the works which were compiled in the first half of the 17th century and the dissertation written at the end of the same century. The works that were written earlier were mostly based on ancient authors, whereas the dissertation from the end of the 17th century delivers empirical knowledge. Thus animals had their impact on the medicine of the 17th century University of Tartu as well as on the way of talking and writing about medicine.

Nous manuscrits de l’obra mèdica d’Arnau de Vilanova

[ca] Aquest article és una primera presentació dels resultats obtinguts en el procés de revisió dels manuscrits de l’obra mèdica d’Arnau de Vilanova en el marc del desenvolupament de la base de dades Arnau BD dedicada a recopilar els còdexs del corpus atribuït a aquest metge medieval. La nostra revisió ha permès no tan sols reunir en un sol recurs els testimonis coneguts prèviament dels escrits mèdics d’Arnau sinó també descobrir 36 manuscrits amb un o més textos seus que havien passat desapercebuts en els estudis arnaldians anteriors.

Zhu Yilin and his medical works

Zhaixinglou Zhidou Quanshu (, Encyclopedia of Smallpox from the Star-Picking Pavilion) is considered as the epitome of theory and the experience collected of the doctors treating smallpox in Ming dynasty. There exists some mistakes and lack of detailed introductions about it and its author Zhu Yilin in some bibliographies. Zhu's style name is"Jixiang", and"Yingwo"is his art name. His most active time was during the reigns of Wanli and Chongzhen emperors. He learned medicine because of his illness and became good at treating smallpox. After failing to pass the Imperial examinations, he focused on practicing medicine. Zhu Yilin's printed medical works include Douyan Qulu Ji, Lundou Youxi Pian, Zhidou Dachengji (, Collections of Treating Smallpox), and his medical records. There are the preface of 1st Year of Tianqi Reign wood-block edition, and 2 copied manuscripts, one in Japan and the other in Taiwan. Zhu's descendant Zhu Fa and Zhu Cun collected his works above and compiled as one book, renamed its name to Zhaixinglou Zhidou Quanshu during Qianlong and Daoguang Reign and printed it in 1826, which is called the Daoguang Gengletang edition. Some reference books and textbooks mistake it as compiled in 1619, printed in 1743 or 1765. In addition, Fu Zhichao Zhongdouxinfa (, Supplemented Extracts of Variolation Methods) in Zhaixinglou Zhidou Quanshu was mainly based on Youke Zhongdou Xinfa Yaozhi (, Pediatric Variolation Essentials), and extracted many books like Douzhen Dinglun (, Verdict on Smallpox).