Mediation Efforts Research Articles

The role of mediation in international conflict resolution

International conflicts are becoming increasingly complex and pose a threat to world stability and security. In this context, mediation acquires key importance as a mechanism to prevent violence and find a peaceful solution. This article explores the important role of mediation in the process of resolving international conflicts. International conflicts are growing in complexity and protractedness, requiring effective resolution mechanisms to prevent violence and mitigate tensions between parties. Mediation is a key tool in resolving such conflicts, providing neutral mediation and creating a fruitful platform for dialog.
 The article analyzes various aspects of mediation in international conflicts, including the roles of mediators, the methods and strategies used to resolve differences, and examples of successful and unsuccessful mediation attempts in the history of international relations. The importance of neutrality, trust, and diplomatic skill for effective mediation is highlighted.
 Challenges associated with mediation in international conflicts, such as the reluctance of parties to mediate, difficulties in enforcing agreements, and external influences on the mediation process, are discussed. The author suggests ways to overcome these challenges, including strengthening international support for mediators, using innovative mediation techniques and tools, and improving coordination and cooperation among international organizations.
 The article emphasizes that mediation is an effective tool for easing tensions between parties to a conflict and ensuring neutral mediation. The author examines the different roles of mediators, their methods and strategies used to facilitate dialog and reach agreement. Examples of successful and unsuccessful mediation cases in the history of international relations are presented, highlighting key factors influencing the success of this process.
 Particular attention is paid to the challenges mediators face in resolving international conflicts. These challenges include the difficulty of establishing trust between the parties, the reluctance of the parties to recognize the need for mediation, and the influence of external actors on the course and outcome of mediation efforts. The author suggests strategies to overcome these challenges, including strengthening diplomatic efforts and utilizing innovative approaches.
 The concluding sections of the article emphasize the importance of further research on mediation and international conflict resolution. The author calls for increased support for mediators from international organizations and states, as well as well as the active implementation of mediation approaches in conflict resolution to ensure peace and stability in the global arena.

China’s Role in Conflict Mediation in the Middle East: Normalization of Relations between Iran and Saudi Arabia and the 2023 Israel-Hamas War

The article discusses China’s evolving role in the Middle East, emphasizing its shift from economic and energy interests to a more active involvement in political and security matters. It highlights China’s mediation efforts between Iran and Saudi Arabia, which led to the normalization of diplomatic relations. The article explores the reasons behind China’s mediation, including its interest in easing tensions for its Middle East strategy, managing relations amid US-Saudi tensions, and demonstrating a broader political and security engagement in the region. The analysis includes the views of Chinese intellectuals who see the success of the mediation as a diplomatic achievement and a signal of the end of US hegemony in the Middle East. The article also touches on China’s stance on the Hamas-Israel conflict, noting China’s proactive approach and criticism of Israel’s actions while supporting Palestine. In a broader context, the article discusses China’s historical relations with Palestine and Israel and highlights China’s growing political engagement in the Middle East. However, at the same time, it also shows the limitation of China’s influence in the region. The analysis suggests that China’s diplomacy reflects a response to the changing dynamics in the region and its proactive efforts to shape the regional order amidst the decline of US influence.

THE UN FACTOR IN THE COMPLEX INTERDEPENDENCE SYSTEM OF REGIONAL SECURITY

This article explores the role of the United Nations (UN) within the complex interdependence system of regional security. In an era marked by global interconnectedness and interdependence, regional security challenges necessitate a multilateral approach. The UN, as a global organization, assumes a critical role in addressing these challenges due to its mandate, resources, and convening power. The article begins by elucidating the concept of complex interdependence, emphasizing the intricate web of relationships and interconnections among states and non-state actors in the realm of regional security. It underscores the significance of comprehending the multifaceted nature of contemporary security concerns and the imperative of collaboration and cooperation among nations. Subsequently, the article investigates the UN's role in the complex interdependence system. It examines the UN's mandate, which encompasses the promotion of peace, security, and stability at both regional and global levels. The institutional framework of the UN, including the Security Council, General Assembly, and specialized agencies, provides platforms for dialogue, negotiation, and coordination among member states. Moreover, the article explores the UN's resources and capabilities in addressing regional security issues. It highlights the UN's peacekeeping operations, conflict prevention and mediation efforts, and humanitarian assistance initiatives as crucial tools for fostering regional security. Additionally, it underscores the UN's normative framework, encompassing international law and human rights, as essential components in the pursuit of regional security. Furthermore, the article analyzes the UN's convening power and its ability to bring together diverse actors to collectively address regional security challenges. It discusses the UN's role as a platform for dialogue, diplomacy, and consensus-building, facilitating regional cooperation and fostering trust among states. Lastly, the article acknowledges the limitations and challenges faced by the UN within the complex interdependence system of regional security. It recognizes the need for ongoing efforts to enhance the UN's effectiveness, responsiveness, and adaptability to evolving security dynamics. In conclusion, this article underscores the indispensable role of the UN within the complex interdependence system of regional security. By leveraging its mandate, resources, and convening power, the UN significantly contributes to the cultivation of peaceful and stable regional environments in an era characterized by interconnectedness and interdependence.

Leveraging digital methods in the quest for peaceful futures: the interplay of sincere and subjunctive technology affordances in peace mediation

ABSTRACT Efforts to support the resolution of armed conflicts through the facilitation of peace negotiations and dialogues increasingly involve digital technologies. While traditionally perceived as a human-centered activity, peace mediation now commonly entails information- and data-driven methods to enhance talks, support the analysis of conflict stakeholder needs and interests, and ground mediation efforts in better evidence. Digital technologies also promise to make peace efforts more future-oriented by helping to predict or anticipate upcoming developments, build scenarios, and increase readiness for emerging challenges. However, little is known about how such methods can be employed in dialogue and negotiation settings, where participants may have subjective and incompatible views on the conflict context, and more data and evidence don’t necessarily help to determine what a more peaceful future could look like. Through a qualitative study of the use of digitally enhanced dialogue efforts in Yemen and Libya, we demonstrate that future-oriented peacemaking requires the balancing of ‘sincere’ technology affordances that encourage an engagement with the past and present reality of conflict, with ‘subjunctive’ technology affordances that encourage an engagement with possible futures that are more peaceful. In practice, this requires combining data- and evidence-generating methods concerned with the world ‘as is’ with data analysis and visualization methods concerned with how the world ‘should’ or ‘could’ be. Our findings have implications for the study of digital methods in the facilitation of contentious political processes where the provision of data and evidence may create hurting deadlocks.

Turkey and the Russian invasion of Ukraine: an interplay of bloc (de)formation, recognition and asymmetric interdependencies?

ABSTRACT This piece answers some of the issues (such as the potential emergence of new blocs, the role of interdependencies, and Western recognition) raised in Debating the War in Ukraine by examining Turkey’s role in the war in Ukraine. It argues that Turkey’s somewhat balanced policy in the war, trying to please both Ukraine and Russia, stems from three main considerations. First, Turkey’s economic and strategic asymmetric interdependency (in Syria) on Russia prevents Turkey from taking actions that might run against Russian interests in the war in Ukraine. Second, Turkey’s balanced attitude legitimizes Turkey’s position to undertake mediation efforts to end the war, fulfill the global leadership role envisioned by the JDP-led Turkey, and also has the potential to garner Turkey some Western recognition, which might not be domestically translated. Finally, the balanced attitude is also a well-poised strategy for Turkey to garner a stake in the post-war reconstruction of Ukraine.

The coup in Niger

In July 2023, a military coup d’état took place in Niger in which several factions of the armed forces seized power and suspended the constitution. President Mohamed Bazoum was placed under house arrest, and the junta appears to have a firm grip on power. Mediation efforts for a return to constitutional order continue. The coup reflects mounting security problems and internal power struggles. It is part of a trend of military coups in the region since 2019, indicating weakening Western influence and increased engagement by Russia.

The Peacekeeping Role of the Organization of African Unity During the Nigerian Civil War, 1967-1970

This study examines the peacekeeping activities of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in resolving the Nigerian crisis. On May 30, 1967 the eastern part of Nigeria, the self-proclaimed Republic of Biafra, tried to secede from Nigeria. This led to a civil war that lasted from July 6, 1967 to January 15, 1970. Biafra’s army was defeated and capitulated. The reference to the history of the OAU peacekeeping experience is relevant, because it can be applied to the settlement of contemporary crises and conflicts in Africa. The author was guided by the principles of historicism, scientific objectivity and reliance on sources. The aim of the article is to clarify the nature and methods of the OAU’s peacekeeping activities, to identify internal and external factors that hindered the achievement of peace, and to assess the effectiveness of the organization’s peacekeeping efforts. The article uses for the first time information and analytical memos of Soviet diplomats found in the Foreign Policy Archive of the Russian Federation (AVP RF) on the OAU’s activities to stop the civil war in Nigeria. The author concludes that the Nigerian crisis was a unique international conflict for the Cold War period. The motives of the external actors were primarily determined by geopolitical aspirations and national interests, rather than bloc solidarity. The author identifies factors that negatively affected the OAU’s potential as a peacemaker: a split among African countries (four of which recognized Biafra’s independence) and competition from Great Britain, which vigorously promoted its own peacekeeping agenda. The OAU’s decisions were not binding on member states; it had no effective mechanism for implementing them, and it had no armed forces of its own that could be used to disengage the warring parties. The OAU succeeded in diplomatically securing overwhelming African support for Nigeria’s territorial integrity, though its mediation efforts failed to achieve peace. The Biafra leadership was not going to capitulate while there was still room for resistance and the federal government was not inclined to question the country’s territorial integrity. The results of the OAU’s peacekeeping can be assessed as positive: it prevented the legitimization of separatist Biafra, which could have had a domino effect with disastrous consequences for the entire African continent.

The Role of Mediation in Resolving Conflicts Between Ecuador and Peru

The study deals with the problem of mediation in the settlement of the longest territorial conflict in Latin America between Peru and Ecuador, highlighting its origins. The main goal of conflict resolution is not only the elimination of the conflict itself, but the transformation of a real conflict situation into a peaceful process of social or political change, where mediation is a strategy or a tool to end the conflict. The authors use an integrated approach, where the most appropriate theoretical basis for considering and resolving these conflicts is neoliberalism, as well as the problem-chronological approach, the historical method, which makes it possible to trace the prerequisites and the development of the territorial conflict, and mediation efforts to resolve it. It was concluded that the Ecuadorian-Peruvian war, although it was the result of the perception of divergent territorial interests, was caused by the unsuccessful mediation activities of the guarantor countries (Brazil, USA, Chile and Argentina). The mediation activities of Brazil, the USA, Chile and Argentina in 1995-1998 led to the so-called “elegant agreement,” one way or another taking into account the interests of Peru and Ecuador. In this regard, the special importance of the mediation activities of the guarantor countries in resolving the conflict was emphasized, as well as their main tools, such as: negotiation processes, signing documents on the territorial dispute, participating in the demarcation of borders, monitoring compliance with the agreements reached, contributing to the active development of Ecuadorian-Peruvian relations after the signing of the peace treaty and preventing the escalation of the conflict in the future. As a result of the consideration of the role of each intermediary country in the settlement of the Alto Cenepa conflict, their own interests were touched and the key areas of participation in peacekeeping activities were listed, and it was concluded that Brazil’s position was the most active.

Stopping Investigation and Prosecution to Realize Restorative Justice

This study aims to analyze the effectiveness of penal mediation efforts in achieving restorative justice and to analyze penal mediation efforts in stopping the investigation and prosecution of criminal cases. The type of research used is normative legal research, relying on and using library data, namely secondary data in the field of law. The technique of obtaining legal materials is by means of library research by collecting legal materials by reading, quoting, recording and understanding various legal literature and laws. The results of the study show that 1) the function and role of the state through penal mediation will reduce the burden on the state in punishing and imprisoning criminals because amicable and compromise solutions can be reached for the creation of restorative justice. 2) Termination of Prosecution because there has been a settlement of cases outside the court as stipulated in PERJA No. 15 of 2020 Article 3 paragraph (2) is the scope of settlement of criminal cases by mediation as an effort to realize restorative justice which is pursued with material and formal requirements.

Denmark's Engagement in the Oslo Peace Process

Abstract Since 1993, professional and historical record literature has largely focused on the Norwegian involvement in the Oslo peace process. Denmark's extensive mediation efforts to resolve the Israeli-Palestinian conflict have not received similar scrutiny. This article assesses Denmark's involvement in the period following the Oslo Declaration of Principles in 1993. Denmark's peace engagement included two main diplomatic tracks. The unofficial track was designated as the Louisiana Process and the official track was named the Road Map for Peace. In both tracks, Denmark was able to demonstrate a comprehensive foreign policy that reflected a unique mediation strategy. Denmark's capacity to alter the nature of the conflict was restricted by its meager resources and its inability to impose decisions on the involved parties.

Qatar’s approach across the Triple Nexus in conflict-affected contexts: the case of Darfur

The purpose of this paper is to document Qatar’s recent contribution of humanitarian, development, and peace-related efforts to the Sudanese in Darfur. It delves deeply into Qatar’s involvement in Darfur by tracing the flow of foreign assistance provided between 2011 and 2018, while analysing the relevant mediation efforts to settle the conflict in the region. The paper calls for adopting the Triple Nexus approach – or humanitarian development-peace nexus in dealing with Qatar’s role as a third party in Darfur both as a donor and mediator. Contextualising Qatar’s role in this context necessitates considering its foreign assistance and peace-related efforts in conflict-affected contexts and its positioning in relation to the Triple Nexus. While Qatar has not publicly committed itself to the Triple Nexus reforms directed to OECD-DAC donor countries, the paper argues that adopting the Triple Nexus approach might develop the prevailing humanitarian and development and peace-related assistance practices in Qatar.

Bias and balance in civil war mediation

This article identifies a mechanism through which multiparty mediation – mediation with multiple active third parties – has positive effects on civil war resolution. Balanced mediation efforts – those providing third parties biased toward both sides of the dispute – have unique advantages in generating peaceful outcomes. In particular, balanced efforts alleviate the commitment concerns faced by both the rebel group and the government, improving the prospects for peace. In this article, I develop a measure, Mediation balance, which aggregates the mediators’ biases when multiple third parties are present. I also consider, both theoretically and empirically, how the number of mediators interacts with mediation balance to shape outcomes. I test my theory on civil war mediation attempts between 1989 and 2005, finding that balanced mediation efforts improve the probability of reaching an agreement. Furthermore, the strength of this effect is influenced by the number of mediators involved. Mediation balance also influences the probability the agreement halts the violence, albeit in unexpected ways.

IMPLEMENTATION OF MEDIATION IN SHARIA ECONOMIC DISPUTES IN YOGYAKARTA RELIGIOUS COURT

Before bringing a civil matter to a court of first instance, both parties must first make good faith efforts to resolve the issue amicably or through mediation with the help of a third party. Based on data obtained from the Yogyakarta Religious Court, most of the mediation carried out by these mediators was unsuccessful. This research can be classified as field research. The data in this study were obtained from interviews, documentation related to the problem, scientific articles, books, and the official website of the Yogyakarta Religious Court. The research approach is juridical-empirical/juridical-sociological. The results of this study indicate that the settlement of sharia economic problems by mediation at the Yogyakarta Religious Court, in general, can be compared to mediation efforts carried out in other cases, such as divorce or inheritance disputes. Mediated sharia economy is unsuccessful, and the parties only think about mediation, namely the stages of the procedure that must be passed, without understanding the purpose of the mediation process. So it is necessary to provide socialization to the community regarding mediation and improve quality through training or workshops for mediator judges when conducting sharia economic cases by mediation, especially at the Yogyakarta Religious Court.

A "Civil Association" Between the European Union and Russia

Contradicting political worldviews of the EU and Russia contribute to their conflictual relations much more than the attention currently given to this facet of the relations. Each of their solidarist worldviews creates an ideological wall severing their communication that is essential for possible peaceful solutions. However, shifting toward a pluralist worldview inspired by conceptual tools of the English School and Michael Oakeshott’s theory of civil association could be an alternative to the current situation of conflict. Building on this theoretical framework, we also attempt to explain the significance of Türkiye’s mediation efforts along the way and present a constructive criticism of today’s norms-based international law.

EU – WESTERN BALKANS: PROBLEMS OF INTEGRATION

The article examines the results of December EU-Western Balkans Summit and the EU strategy concerning EU – Western Balkans integration. It notes that the summit became a new step in realization of the EU integration strategy in relation to the Western Balkans states. At this stage the strategy is focused on strengthening its political and economic influence in the region and on alignment of the Western Balkans states with the priorities of the EU common security and defense policy, including on the questions of the Ukrainian conflict and related sanctions. At the same time the EU integration strategy creates incentives aimed at realization of necessary reforms in the region with the purpose of strengthening internal stability in the region and prevention of potential conflicts inside of the Western Balkans states as well as among them and first of all between Serbia and Kosovo. The author analyzes the main conflicts in the region which negatively affect stability and security in the Western Balkans and the integration process in general. Special attention is devoted to the escalation of conflict between Serbia and Kosovo which could create serious threat to stability in the region and jeopardize the integration process itself as well as the EU mediation efforts aimed at normalization of relationships between Serbia and Kosovo. The author considers that further EU strategy would be developed on two parallel tracks – acceleration of integration process with the Western Balkans states and increasing effectiveness of the EU mediation mission aimed at achieving comprehensive agreement on normalization of relations between Serbia and Kosovo.

Peacekeeping Mission UNIFIL: “Blue Helmets” in the South of Lebanon

The article focuses on the activities of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL). The authors outline the conditions and prerequisites for the UN Security Council decision on deployment of a peacekeeping contingent in the south of Lebanon. They also consider the specifics of fulfilling the mission’s mandate and the tasks assigned to the peacekeepers. The authors come to the conclusion that the UN peacekeeping mission in Lebanon acts as a deterrent in the confrontation between Israel and the Lebanese Hezbollah, and it also undertakes mediation efforts in the negotiation process between Tel Aviv and Beirut. And although the results of the peacekeeping mission over the past almost four and a half decades cannot be called particularly effective, the absence of peacekeepers in the Southern Lebanon could increase the likelihood of a direct clash between the warring parties. The causes of the conflict have not yet been eliminated. Consequently, the UNIFIL mandate could be extended for years to come. The authors also pay attention to the humanitarian aspect of the peacekeeping mission, whose personnel have made significant efforts to help the local population and carried out the demining of the territory.

Türkiye’de Yeni Osmanlıcı Dış Politikanın Başarısızlığı: Filistin’deki Uzlaşma Süreci Örneği

This article aims to examine the Middle East-oriented neo-Ottomanist policies in Turkish foreign policy during the JDP era and to explain the reason for the failure of neo-Ottomanism through Turkey’s mediation in the reconciliation process between Hamas and Fatah in the Palestinian politics. It is argued that Turkey’s neo-Ottomanist foreign policy failed due to the presence of other regional and global actors competing for influence in the Middle East. When Turkey’s neo-Ottomanist policies conflicted with the interests of the other states seeking influence, Turkey could not achieve its neo-Ottomanist goals. The article shows Turkey’s mediation efforts in the intra-Palestinian reconciliation process as an example to this failure. In the Palestinian reconciliation process, Turkey played a mediator role for years and supported each reconciliation attempt, in accordance with its neo-Ottomanist agenda. However, as two strong actors in the Palestinian politics, the US and Israel, opposed this reconciliation and blocked all reconciliation attempts between Hamas and Fatah, Turkey’s efforts were not enough to bring the process to a permanent solution.

Optional problem solving in peer-to-peer lending

This study aims to find alternative solutions to peer-to-peer lending problems. This study uses a normative juridical approach. The data collection technique used is documentation technique (scientific journal articles related to peer-to-peer lending). The data analysis technique used is analytical descriptive analysis regarding default settlement options in peer-to-peer lending. The results of this study indicate that alternative solutions for solving peer-to-peer lending problems are based on Article 21 POJK No. 77/POJK.01/2016 the parties are required to mitigate risks through litigation channels, namely by going to court on the basis of default (Article 1243 Civil Code) made by the recipient of the loan; and the non-litigation route, namely through mediation because mediation efforts are included in the substance of the law (Law Number 30 of 1999 concerning Arbitration and Alternative Dispute Resolution).

The Ends of Modernization: Nicaragua and the United States in the Cold War Era by David Johnson Lee

<i>The Ends of Modernization: Nicaragua and the United States in the Cold War Era</i> by David Johnson Lee

The 1902 Battle of Bayang from the American perspective

This article revisits the May 2, 1902 Battle of Bayang, a village in Lanao, the scene of the first deadly encounter between the United States Army and the Meranaw Moros (Muslims of Mindanao). It probes into the events that led to this incident, depicting the retaliatory expedition led by Col. Frank Baldwin against the beleaguered Meranaw warriors under the sultan of Bayang who bravely stood their ground amid a powerful occupying army. Despite the mediation effort of an influential imam, Sharif Afdal, the two parties engaged each other that saw the death of hundreds of Meranaw compared to the few casualties on the American side. The war is an epitome of the brutal colonial program to crush all opposition along the way, using might with little diplomacy and lack of understanding of the local culture. The conquerors won the war but failed to stifle the resistance that persisted even after they left Mindanao. Lanao serves as a showcase of indigenous struggle against foreign domination, and the eventual state formation that made Moroland an unwilling part of it.