Mechanical Engineering Students Research Articles

Boosting computer‐aided design pedagogy using interactive self‐assessment graphical tools

AbstractComputer‐aided design (CAD) tools are essential for any engineer and, thus, many researchers have focused on developing the most suitable method for acquiring CAD competences. In recent years, efforts have been devoted to designing new, innovative and helpful methodologies to improve the CAD pedagogy. The presented research aims at showing the advantages of integrating interactive self‐assessment tools into CAD learning methodologies, such as problem‐based learning (PBL). One hundred and ninety‐one first‐year Mechanical Engineering students participated in the research. They were evenly and randomly divided into two groups: a control group and an experimental group. Students belonging to the control group made use of PBL. The experimental group made use of PBL and a new interactive tool, called TrainCAD, that allows the self‐assessment of 2D‐CAD models designed in AutoCAD. The presented results show that experimental group students have considerably improved their academic performance and increased their motivation on the subject. Therefore, the combination of the two proposed approaches seems to be useful for helping students during the CAD learning process. On the other hand, gender was also a factor that has been analysed, to discern whether it influences the proposed academic learning process (based on the applied CAD pedagogy), concluding that there is no significant influence.

Language and disciplinary literacies for accessing, learning and communicating meaning: students’ experiences of the transition from school to first-year undergraduate engineering

ABSTRACT Language use is central for accessing, learning, and communicating understanding of undergraduate engineering knowledge. There is a need to understand students’ experiences, interpretations, and expectations of language use – conceptualised as related notions of language and disciplinary literacies – in their transition from school to and through first-year university. We use interviews with nine first-year mechanical engineering students to describe this transition as a to-and-fro process of navigating a continuum of complexity. All students experienced this as a process of uncritical socialisation into undergraduate engineering. Yet navigating this continuum was harder for some, a process that was inflected through their language repertoires and schooling experiences, but also agentive and personal. Students identified an absence of opportunities to bring their knowledges, languages and identities to this process. These findings and our conceptual tools have purchase in wider debates concerned with the transition into engineering programmes in which diversity is increasingly the norm.

Konsep Konservasi Sumber Air Dilem bagi Kebutuhan Masyarakat Lingkungan Papring Kecamatan Kalipuro Kabupaten Banyuwangi

Conservation of water sources is very necessary for the needs of daily life. Community service cleaning and identification of the Dilem water source area in the Papring Neighbourhood has been carried out by the Mechanical Engineering Student Association of PGRI Banyuwangi University. The purpose of this article is to develop the concept of water source conservation for the needs of the Papring Village community, Kalipuro Sub-district, Banyuwangi District. The concept is prepared based on information and data that has been obtained from the surrounding community and from the implementation of cleaning activity of the water source area. A simple schema of the source area is made as the basis for drafting the concept. The concept of conservation is structured in the form of steps or methods that may be applied in the source area.

LEARNING MOTIVATION TOWARDS LINEAR PROGRAMMING QUESTIONNAIRE FOR POLYTECHNIC DIPLOMA STUDENTS

The objective of this research was to assess the reliability and validity of learning motivation toward the Linear Programming (LMLP) Questionnaire by using the Rasch Measurement Model. The LMLP Questionnaire was adapted from Keller's ARCS Model of motivation to evaluate the motivation level in learning Linear Programming among students of Diploma of Mechanical Engineering at Polytechnic Kota Kinabalu. The LMLP Questionnaire consisted of 34 items with the use of a 5-point Likert scale. The level of student motivation was measured based on four main constructs which are Attention (A), Relevance (R), Confidence (C) and Satisfaction (S). The sample comprised 56 third-semester students of Diploma of Mechanical Engineering. The results of the study found that overall, this questionnaire had high reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha (KR-20) value of 0.97. The questionnaire was found to have good item reliability and item separation values of 0.84 and 2.26, respectively. The questionnaire also had excellent person reliability and good person separation values of 0.93 and 3.74, respectively. Meanwhile, the validity of the LMLP instrument was appropriately established through the item fit, person fit, and unidimensionality. In conclusion, this study shows that the LMLP Questionnaire is a reliable and valid instrument to measure the level of learning motivation towards Linear Programming among third-semester Diploma students in Mechanical Engineering.

KORELASI KEHADIRAN DENGAN HASIL BELAJAR MAHASISWA TEKNIK MESIN UNIVERSITAS MUHAMMADIYAH TANGERANG DI ERA NEW NORMAL

Correlation can be said to be a fact of the relationship between two or more variables. This study aims to determine the correlation between attendance and learning outcomes of Mechanical Engineering Students at Muhammadiyah University of Tangerang in the new normal era. The research method used is a quantitative method with a correlation of two variables. Analysis of attendance variables with student learning outcomes using the product moment calculation method. The results showed that the correlation between attendance and student learning outcomes had a very small and not close effect, namely 0.38. This shows that 14.8% of learning outcomes are influenced by attendance and 85.2% are influenced by other factors

The Effect of Industrial Practice Experience on Student's Work Readiness of Machinery Engineering Vocational School

This study aims to reveal the effect of industrial practice experience on the job readiness of vocational engineering mechinery students in Yogyakarta. This type of research is ex-post facto with a correlational approach. The subjects in this study were all students of machining engineering expertise program at Vocational High School Yogyakarta, with a total of 297 students. Determination of sample size using the Isaac & Michael table, obtained a sample of 247 students. Sampling with purposive sampling technique and data collection using a questionnaire. The data analysis technique used is descriptive statistics to describe the data of each variable and the regression analysis used for hypothesis testing. Based on the analysis and hypothesis testing, it can be concluded that the hypothesis has a positive and significant effect between industrial practice experience on the work readiness of students of Mechanical Engineering Vocational School in Yogyakarta. It can be seen from the regression results and the results of the significance of industrial practice experience on student work readiness, the correlation coefficient (r) is 0.677 and the coefficient of determination (r2) is 0.459. The results of this study indicate that the experience of industrial practice has a positive and significant effect on the work readiness of Mechanical Engineering students at Mechanical Engineering Vocational School in Yogyakarta.

Prior Art Research in the Capstone Design Experience: A Case Study of Redesigned Online and In-person Instruction

Exploration of "prior art"—the state of a technology’s development, as manifested in literature, documentation, and artifacts—has many benefits for engineering students. It expands their understanding of the design problem, reveals a range of possible solutions, and develops research skills important to professional practice. While prior art often includes patents and research literature, it can include any type of publication or document. This paper presents an innovative approach to a prior art review assignment in the capstone course for mechanical, electrical, and biomedical engineering students at the University of Vermont (UVM). The assignment and accompanying instruction were redesigned in 2018–2019 to address several issues that limited students' ability to do the required work to a high standard. Foundational knowledge about key publication types and research skills was "flipped" into a set of online tutorials; the class session was converted from a lecture to an interactive workshop-style presentation; research consultations with an engineering librarian were tailored to team projects; and the assignment deliverables were redesigned to incorporate more reflection about the process of engaging with prior art. This multifaceted approach involves a substantial amount of preparation. However, assessment showed significant returns on the investment that includes improved knowledge of types of engineering publication, demonstrated use of advanced research practices, and insightful reflections on the role of prior art in design thinking.

Prior Art Research in the Capstone Design Experience: A Case Study of Redesigned Online and In-person Instruction

Exploration of "prior art"—the state of a technology’s development, as manifested in literature, documentation, and artifacts—has many benefits for engineering students. It expands their understanding of the design problem, reveals a range of possible solutions, and develops research skills important to professional practice. While prior art often includes patents and research literature, it can include any type of publication or document. This paper presents an innovative approach to a prior art review assignment in the capstone course for mechanical, electrical, and biomedical engineering students at the University of Vermont (UVM). The assignment and accompanying instruction were redesigned in 2018–2019 to address several issues that limited students' ability to do the required work to a high standard. Foundational knowledge about key publication types and research skills was "flipped" into a set of online tutorials; the class session was converted from a lecture to an interactive workshop-style presentation; research consultations with an engineering librarian were tailored to team projects; and the assignment deliverables were redesigned to incorporate more reflection about the process of engaging with prior art. This multifaceted approach involves a substantial amount of preparation. However, assessment showed significant returns on the investment that includes improved knowledge of types of engineering publication, demonstrated use of advanced research practices, and insightful reflections on the role of prior art in design thinking.

DESIGN OF FRAME FOR THE PUMP PERFORMANCE TEST EQUIPMENT USING VDI 2221 METHOD

Pumps in modern human life have become a major need, and their use is very wide, therefore pump learning is indispensable for mechanical engineering students. For pump performance learning media, Pump Performance Test Equipment (PPTE) is needed. The test equipment requires a strong frame and meets the requirements to be able to withstand the load, not only the equipment load but also the water weight used as the working fluid on the performance test equipment which is very large. This study aims to design a frame that can withstand the entire load of the PPTE. The design is done by calculating the load experienced by the frame when the test equipment is operated. The design of this pump performance test framework uses the VDI 2221 method, which includes several stages: task clarification, design concepts, concept embodiment, and design details. The results obtained from the use of the VDI 2221 method are variation 1, with a frame of 1000mm length, 1200mm width, and 1140mm height. The frame specifications using 4x4 hollow steel size with a thickness of 2mm and 4x6 size with a thickness of 3mm, and using a wheel type with a lock that can withstand the load. maximum up to 600kg.

Mechanical engineering students’ struggles with units of measure


 
 
 The correct use of units of measure is a critical and fundamental skill that is often taken for granted. The fact that units are taught in high school leads to the expectation that university freshmen master these skills. Unfortunately, faculty often observe that students struggle with units. Although the literature is limited on the nature and extent of students’ struggles with units, it is shown that all of it, without exception, points to a pervasive problem in STEM programs. This paper contributes to the literature by exploring the evolution in the performance of N=21 senior mechanical engineering students enrolled during the Fall 2019 semester in a 3-credit-hour, required course that prepares them for the NCEES Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) Exam. Students were given a unit-conversion quiz at the beginning each class session. It was corrected on the spot, with a score of either 1 or 0, followed by a discussion of the quiz. A score of 1 required a perfect solution. The performance on each quiz guided the decision on the content of future quizzes. The results show that 15 quizzes were required to get 100% of the students to push through their difficulties and achieve expertise. The paper includes the content of the quizzes, the solutions, the aggregated results for each quiz, and the nature of the mistakes. It also includes an algorithm to conduct unit conversions and a visualization scheme to use tables of unit conversions and tables of metric prefixes that were developed during the project. These greatly assisted students in overcoming their difficulties. The experiment was repeated the following semester (Spring 2020, N=27) to test the effectiveness of an algorithm and visualization scheme developed by the author during the Fall 2019 semester. The time to achieve expertise was reduced to one third (5 quizzes vs 15 for the original group), thus confirming its merit. Part of the discussion section focuses on the benefit of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (SoTL) movement, of which this paper is an example, and its use in the ABET-required processes of outcomes assessment and continuous improvement. The paper also includes suggestions for further research.
 
 

Academic Performance before and during the State of Emergency due to Covid-19: Analysis from the Perspective of Distance Education

Faced with Covid-19, and the need to adapt to environments that guarantee continuity of educational service in the context of social distancing, many universities did not initially plan the mechanisms for adapting to the virtual modality adequately. Therefore, this period of transition to e-learning was characterised by a decrease in academic performance . This article reports on a study that focused on determining whether the transition from a classroom to a virtual teaching–learning model had an effect or influence on the academic performance of university students in mechanical and electrical engineering at a public university in Peru during the period 2018 to 2021. The purpose of the study was to ensure the quality of the education system in the face of the implementation of a hybrid mode of teaching. Methodologically, a descriptive type of investigation and longitudinal non-experimental design were undertaken. The research methodology followed a hypothetical-deductive approach. The number of participants was 157 and a registration form was used to collect data on the indicators that made up the academic performance variable. The results reveal that the switch to a virtual teaching–learning modality significantly influenced the academic performance of the students. Student’s t-test found a significance equal to 0.000. Passing grades were achieved by 98.57% of students under the virtual teaching–learning modality, compared to 68.4% under classroom learning.

The Role of Cooperative Learning to Increase Affective Aspects In Sport Education Learning

The purpose of this study aim improvement of the Affective ability of students at SMKN 2 Depok Sleman N 2 Depok Sleman Yogyakarta through the Cooperative Learning (CL) learning model. The research was conducted using a Classroom Action Research approach to classroom action research. This research was conducted at SMK Negeri 2 Depok Sleman. The research subjects were all students of class X Mechanical Engineering totaling 32 students. Collecting data with quantitative questionnaires while qualitatively by observation. The data analysis technique used is to use textual analysis for quantitative, while the qualitative analysis is to reduce interview data. the results of cycle 1 experienced an average increase from the conventional method of 6.2 to 7.4 an increase of 16%. In the second cycle, a cooperative learning model with the type of Team Game Tournament (TGT) was given. There was an increase in cycle II by 13%, with the results of cycle 2 ending a series of a research cycle because the average affective learning mastery was 8.6 from a minimum completeness of 7.5 points. Based on the results of the pre-cycle, cycle I, and Cycle II, the cooperative learning model can increase affective learning by 29% in total from the two cycles. This is because the CL model makes the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation of Mechanical Engineering students at SMKN 2 Depok high to be able to participate in learning. This creates a supportive atmosphere in learning so that positive communication can be created between teachers and students. The creation of this communication relationship is one of the stimuli so that students are able to control their own behavior and can restrain their respective egos through cooperative learning so that they can increase honesty, responsibility, tolerance, courtesy, and responsiveness.

Implementasi Pengetahuan, Persepsi, Dan Penerapan Kesehatan Dan Keselamatan Kerja (K3) Pada Pembelajaran Praktik Program Keahlian Teknik Pemesinan Dan Teknik Ototronik Di SMK Negeri 2 Karanganyar

<p class="StyleAuthorBold"><em>Abstract </em></p><p> This study aims to determine the level of knowledge, perception, and application of Occupational Health and Safety(OHS) in class XII students of the Mechanical Engineering and Autotronic Engineering expertise program. This research used descriptive quantitative research methods. Retrieval of data using test instruments and questionnaires. The population of this study was 135 students of class XII, 67 students of mechanical engineering and 68 students of autotronic engineering.</p><p> The results showed that the level of OHS knowledge of class XII students of Mechanical Engineering, 76.12%, was in the good category, 19.40% was good enough and was 4.48% not good enough. Meanwhile, in class XII, Autotronic Engineering which was included in the good category was 75%, 17.65% was good enough, and 7.35% was not good. The highest average gain lies in the OHS Terms and Principles indicator, namely for the engineering department, 98.51% of students are in the good category and 98.53% for the auto-electronics department, 98.53% of the students are in the good category.</p><p>For the level of student perception, in class XII Mechanical Engineering which is in the good category is 95.52%, 4.48% is quite good, and there are no students in the poor category. Meanwhile, the level of students' perceptions in class XII of Autotronic Engineering which was in the good category was 98.51%, 2.99% was quite good, and no student was in the poor category. The highest average gain lies in the OHS Terms and Principles indicator, namely for the engineering department, 98.51% of students are in the good category and 98.53% for the auto-electronics department, 98.53% of the students are in the good category.</p>For the level of application, the highest percentage of students in mechanical engineering always did 72.14%, sometimes 26.37% and students did not do 1.49%. Meanwhile, there were 70.59% of students in autotronic engineering who always did it, 27.94% of the students did sometimes, and 1.47% did not. The highest average gain lies in the indicators of cleanliness and health of the work environment where for the engineering department, 72.14% of students always apply OHS measures. Meanwhile, for the autronic department, 70.59% of students always apply OHS actions.

“Digital literacy”: Shaping industry 4.0 engineering curriculums via factory pilot-demonstrators

This work describes a joint initiative between PSG-College of technology (Coimbatore, India) and Newcastle University (UK) for the mapping, design, evaluation and roll out of technically rich ‘Digital Manufacturing’ curriculum which has been embraced with a two-fold objective: 1) to prepare final-year Engineering students for real-life industrial environments and 2) to promote the use of digital technologies across manufacturing-intensive Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) that can directly benefit from their application at an engineering, managerial and shop-floor practical levels. The project started by considering both countries' national strategies for Industry 4.0 (MAKE-in India and Made Smarter, UK) to identify those areas marked as strategically critical and mapping them onto existing engineering curriculums across undergraduate engineering degrees.Based on local industry partners with clearly defined ‘digitalization’ opportunities, four industrial case studies were selected and reproduced inside both University labs in the form of student projects that were made available to all final year mechanical engineering students at both institutions. The resulting pilot projects exhibited the potential to expose undergraduate students to engineering concepts and techniques not currently covered in the taught curriculums, while offering industry a ‘soft landing’ on the use of Industry 4.0 tools which have not yet been embraced, mainly due to the lack of qualified personnel or access to specific technology skillsets, such as 3D printing, Augmented Reality and Digital Twins.

Visible Learning and synchronous online lesson in higher education: a study in engineering education

ABSTRACT The Visible Learning (VL) approach to learning processes stems from Hattie’s work based on synthesising meta-analyses regarding achievement in education. Although the model is used at many levels of instruction, its performance has been less studied in higher education, engineering education, and in the context of synchronous online learning in distance education. This study implements VL features and analyzes their ability to improve learning outcomes and teaching quality. To this end, a synchronous online lesson in a Fluid Dynamics course was implemented with 39 mechanical engineering students. The research method is a one-group pretest-posttest design and data were collected through a test and a 5-point Likert scale questionnaire. The learning achievement is measured using Cohen's d. The relevant effect size value obtained (d = 2.32) stands out from those in the literature where meta-meta-analyses report an impact on learning close to that of a traditional lecture (d = 0.08). Regarding the learning experience, students’ ratings of both the lesson and the teacher's teaching quality are clearly positive. It can be concluded that the VL approach can produce significant learning gains and positive perceptions of instructional quality among students in the context of synchronous online instruction in engineering education.

Anasisis Minat Wirausaha Berdasarkan Jenjang Pendidikan Vokasi Pada Bidang Teknik Mesin

<p><em>Entrepreneurship is one aspect that affects economic growth in Iindonesia. Students are the next generation who are expected to be able to create entrepreneurs in the future. The purpose of this research is to analyze entrepreneurial interest based on vocational education level in mechanical engineering and the factors driving this interest. This research uses a mix-method that combines a quantitative approach and a qualitative approach. The subjects of the research were Class XII students of State 2 Vocational High School in Surakarta, department of mechanical engineering, totaling 120 people and D3 Mechanical Engineering students at Sebelas Maret University, totaling 57 people. Data collection techniques to determine the entrepreneurial interest of students (quantitative data) using the questionnaire method while knowing the factors that influence entrepreneurial interest (qualitative data) using the interview method. Analysis of data for quantitative data using descriptive analysis and for qualitative data using thematic analysis. The result showed that the majority of students wanted to be entrepreneurs but a different levels of time. Factors that influence entrepreneurial interest are divided into two, namely internal factors and external factors. The internal factors driving entrepreneurial interest are motivation that comes from the individual’s self and enthusiasm to face risk challenges. External factors driving or family, entrepreneurial interest are motivation the arises due to the influence of friends or family, entrepreneurial experience and entrepreneurship education.</em></p>

Work-Based Skills Need for Employability of Mechanical Engineering Students of Polytechnics in Rivers State

The study determined the work-based skills need for employment of mechanical engineering student of polytechnics in Rivers State. Specifically, the study sought to determine mechanical engineering and generic skill needs for employment of polytechnic students in Rivers State. Two research questions were posed and two null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study at 5% level of significance. Descriptive survey research design was adopted for the study. The population of the study consisted of all the thirty-two (32) respondents (twenty-one (21) lecturers and eleven (11) technologists) of mechanical engineering lecturers and technologists in Rivers State owned polytechnics in Rivers State which are Ken Saro Wiwa Polytechnic Bori and Captain Elechi Amadi Polytechnic Rumuola Port Harcourt Rivers State. No sample was taken since the population of the study was of manageable size. The instrument for data collection was a researcher’s designed questionnaire which comprised 20-items and was designed on a 5- point likert scale of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree, (A), Undecided (U), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD) having ordinal values of 5,4,3,2 and 1 respectively. Three experts validated the instrument while Cronbach Alpha method was used to determine the reliability of the instrument which yielded a coefficient of 0.87 after a test-retest which lasted for 15 days. Mean and standard deviation was used to answer the research question while t-test was used to test the hypotheses. The criterions mean score was taking at 3.50. That means, “reject” the null hypotheses where t-cal value was equal or greater then table value, but otherwise, “accept” the null hypotheses. The findings revealed that mechanical engineering skills and generic skills such as identified below are needed for employment of mechanical engineering students of polytechnic in Rivers State. The study therefore recommended that government should provide adequate mechanical engineering training facilities for the acquisition of mechanical engineering skills in polytechnics in Rivers State.

Meningkatkan Kemampuan Berpikir Kritis Matematis Mahasiswa Menggunakan Model Pembelajaran Connected Mathematics Project (CMP)

This research aims to; (1) knowing the implementation of class actions using Connected Mathematics Project (CMP) learning; (2) knowing student activities in Connected Mathematics Project (CMP) learning; (3) find out whether Connected Mathematics Project (CMP) learning can improve mathematical critical thinking skills of second semester students of Mechanical Engineering at the Raflesia Polytechnic. This type of research is Classroom Action Research with four stages including: Action planning → action implementation → observation → reflection. The subjects of this study were students of the second semester of the Polytechnic, totaling 30 people. Data collection using observation sheets and test sheets. The results showed that the implementation of classroom action with the Connected Mathematics Project (CMP) learning was carried out well, marked by an increase in student learning activities which was offset by a decrease in activities carried out by the teacher so that effective student learning was obtained. Students' mathematical critical thinking ability increases can be seen from the results of the tests given, if in the pre-test results only 5 students reached the good category, then the post-test results as many as 26 students have reached the good category, with 3 indicators, namely identifying problems , generalize and analyze the algorithm has reached a good category, for indicators of solving problems in the category enough. In conclusion, learning using the Connected Mathematics Project (CMP) method for second semester students of Mechanical Engineering at the Raflesia Polytechnic is effective in improving student mathematics learning outcomes.
 
 Keywords: Connected Mathematics Project (CMP), Critical Thinking, Ability Improvement

Acoustics@Home: Laboratories and student-led projects conducted for an undergraduate engineering experimentation course during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Hands-on, project-based learning was difficult to achieve in online classes during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Engineering Experimentation course at Cooper Union teaches third-year mechanical engineering students practical experimental skills to measure physical phenomenon, which typically requires in-person laboratory classes. In response to COVID, a low-cost, at-home laboratory kit was devised to give students tools to conduct experiments. The kit included a microcontroller acting as a data-acquisition device and custom software to facilitate data transfer. A speed of sound laboratory was designed with the kit to teach skills in data collection, signal processing, and error analysis. The students derived the sound speed by placing two microphones a known distance apart and measuring the time for an impulsive signal to travel from one to the other. The students reported sound speeds from 180.7-477.8 m/s in a temperature range from 273.7-315.9 K. While these reported speeds contained a large amount of error, the exercise allowed the students to learn how to account for sources of error within experiments. This paper also presents final projects designed by the students at home, an impedance tube and two Doppler shift experiments, that exhibit successful and effective low-cost solutions to demonstrate and measure acoustic phenomenon.

Comparing reflective and supportive scaffolding in 3D computer‐aided design course: Engineering students' metacognitive strategies, spatial ability self‐efficacy, and spatial anxiety

AbstractThree‐dimensional (3D) modeling provides a suitable context for the improvement of students' higher order thinking skills as it involves challenging and complex learning tasks. For students to succeed in difficult learning tasks, it is necessary to determine the effects of the scaffolding type given to the students in the learning process. This study asserts that reflective and supportive scaffolding has a critical effect on the dependent variables. Reflective scaffolding enables students to explain their reflective processes and clarify their reflective behavior, using personal reflection as a learning tool. Supportive scaffolding provides a process to develop knowledge and guidance on what participants should consider. This study compares the effects of different scaffolding types (reflective or supportive), students' prior knowledge on students' use of metacognitive strategies, spatial ability self‐efficacy, and spatial anxiety in the 3D computer‐aided design course. A pretest and posttest 2 x 2 x 2 factorial quasi‐experimental model was used in the study. This study was carried out with 118 undergraduate mechanical engineering students. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used in the analysis of the data. The results showed that the supportive scaffolding group scored higher in the metacognitive strategies variable than the reflective scaffolding group. The supportive scaffolding group showed higher spatial ability than the reflective scaffolding group. This study provides engineering educators with an overview of the use of scaffolding types, their effects on the effectiveness of learning environments, and the design of these environments.