Measures Of Motor Development Research Articles

Prenatal and childhood exposure to phthalates and motor skills at age 11 years

BackgroundPrevious reports suggest that prenatal phthalate exposure is associated with lower scores on measures of motor skills in infants and toddlers. Whether these associations persist into later childhood or preadolescence has not been studied. MethodsIn a follow up study of 209 inner-city mothers and their children the concentrations of mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP), monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP), monoisobutyl phthalate (MiBP), monomethyl phthalate (MEP), mono-carboxy-isooctyl phthalate (MCOP), and four di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate metabolites (ΣDEHP) were measured in spot urine sample collected from the women in late pregnancy and from their children at ages 3, 5, and 7 years. The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency short form (BOT-2) was administered at child age 11 to assess gross and fine motor skills. ResultsThe total number of children included in the study was 209. Of the 209 children, 116(55.5%) were girls and 93 were (45%) boys. Among girls, prenatal MnBP(b=−2.09; 95%CI: [−3.43, −0.75]), MBzP (b=−1.14; [95%CI: −2.13, −0.14]), and MiBP(b=−1.36; 95%CI: [−2.51, −0.21] and MEP(b=−1.23 [95%CI: −2.36, −0.11]) were associated with lower total BOT-2 composite score. MnBP (b= –1.43; 95% CI: [–2.44, –0.42]) was associated with lower fine motor scores and MiBP(b = –0.56; 95% CI: [–1.12, –0.01]) and MEP (b = –0.60; 95% CI: [–1.14, −0.06])was associated with lower gross motor scores. Among boys, prenatal MBzP (b = –0.79; 95% CI: [–1.40, −0.19]) was associated with lower fine motor composite score.The associations between MEP measured at age 3 and the BOT-2 gross motor, fine motor and total motor score differed by sex. In boys, there was an inverse association between ΣDEHP metabolites measured in childhood at ages 3 (b = –1.30; 95% CI: [–2.34, −0.26]) and 7 years (b = –0.96; 95% CI: [–1.79, −0.13]), and BOT-2 fine motor composite scores. ConclusionsHigher prenatal exposure to specific phthalates was associated with lower motor function among 11- year old girls while higher postnatal exposure to ΣDEHP metabolites was associated with lower scores among boys. As lower scores on measures of motor development have been associated with more problems in cognitive, socioemotional functioning and behavior, the findings of this study have implications related to overall child development.

Towards a capability approach to child growth: A theoretical framework

Child malnutrition is an important cause of under‐5 mortality and morbidity around the globe. Despite the partial success of (inter)national efforts to reduce child mortality, under‐5 mortality rates continue to be high. The multidimensional approaches of the Sustainable Development Goals may suggest new directions for rethinking strategies for reducing child mortality and malnutrition. We propose a theoretical framework for developing a “capability” approach to child growth. The current child growth monitoring practices are based on 2 assumptions: (a) that anthropometric and motor development measures are the appropriate indicators; and (b) that child growth can be assessed using a single universal standard that is applicable around the world. These practices may be further advanced by applying a capability approach to child growth, whereby growth is redefined as the achievement of certain capabilities (of society, parents, and children). This framework is similar to the multidimensional approach to societal development presented in the seminal work of Amartya Sen. To identify the dimensions of healthy child growth, we draw upon theories from the social sciences and evolutionary biology. Conceptually, we consider growth as a plural space and propose assessing growth by means of a child growth matrix in which the context is embedded in the assessment. This approach will better address the diversities and the inequalities in child growth. Such a multidimensional measure will have implications for interventions and policy, including prevention and counselling, and could have an impact on child malnutrition and mortality.

Refractive errors in infancy predict reduced performance on the Movement Assessment Battery for Children at 31/2 and 51/2 years

We have previously reported that significant hyperopia at 9 months predicts mild deficits on visuocognitive and visuomotor measures between 2 years and 5 years 6 months. Here we compare the motor skills of children who had been hyperopic in infancy (hyperopic group) with those who had been emmetropic (control group), using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (Movement ABC). Children were tested at 3 years 6 months (hyperopic group: 47 males, 63 females, mean age 3y 7mo, SD 1.6mo; control group: 61 males, 70 females, mean age 3y 7mo, SD 1.2mo) and at 5 years 6 months (hyperopic group: 43 males, 56 females, mean age 5y 4mo, SD 1.7mo; control group: 51 males, 62 females, mean age 5y 3mo, SD 1.6mo). The hyperopic group performed significantly worse at both ages, overall and on at least one test from each category of motor skill (manual dexterity, balance, and ball skills). Distributions of scores showed that these differences were not due to poor performance by a minority but to a widespread mild deficit in the hyperopic group. This study also provides the first normative data on the Movement ABC for children below 4 years of age, and shows that it provides a useful measure of motor development at this young age.

Evolving patterns of haptic exploration in visually impaired infants

This study investigated the way the tactile exploratory system of visually impaired infants becomes organised to gather information. To study this question, textured surfaces consisting of raised lumps were designed which allowed the quantification of local and global texture properties in terms of the density of texture elements. Results with three visually impaired infants showed that texture-specific exploration took the form of: (1) an adaptation of the preferred movement directions (2) a tendency to move in the direction that maximized density differences and (3) a decrease in movement speed once density differences were discovered. Global figurative patterns embedded within the textures were not discovered. Texture specific exploration requires some degree of control over the hand movements, as was corroborated by measures of motor development and reaching movements.

Refractive errors in infancy predict reduced performance on the Movement Assessment Battery for Children at 3½ and 5½ years

We have previously reported that significant hyperopia at 9 months predicts mild deficits on visuocognitive and visuomotor measures between 2 years and 5 years 6 months. Here we compare the motor skills of children who had been hyperopic in infancy (hyperopic group) with those who had been emmetropic (control group), using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (Movement ABC). Children were tested at 3 years 6 months (hyperopic group: 47 males, 63 females, mean age 3 y 7 mo, SD 1.6 mo; control group: 61 males, 70 females, mean age 3 y 7 mo, SD 1.2 mo) and at 5 years 6 months (hyperopic group: 43 males, 56 females, mean age 5 y 4 mo, SD 1.7 mo; control group: 51 males, 62 females, mean age 5 y 3 mo, SD 1.6 mo). The hyperopic group performed significantly worse at both ages, overall and on at least one test from each category of motor skill (manual dexterity, balance, and ball skills). Distributions of scores showed that these differences were not due to poor performance by a minority but to a widespread mild deficit in the hyperopic group. This study also provides the first normative data on the Movement ABC for children below 4 years of age, and shows that it provides a useful measure of motor development at this young age.

Developmental Differences in Childhood Motor Coordination Predict Adult Alcohol Dependence: Proposed Role for the Cerebellum in Alcoholism

The Danish Longitudinal Study of Alcoholism has identified a number of early biological indicators that predicted alcohol dependence 30 years later. In light of recent evidence linking deficits of the cerebellum to certain neuropsychiatric disorders often comorbid with alcoholism, we hypothesized that developmental deficits in the cerebellar vermis may also play a role in the initiation of adult alcohol dependence. The present study evaluated whether measures of motor development in the first year of life predict alcohol dependence three decades later. A total of 241 subjects of the original 330 infants who were entered into this study completed the 30-year follow-up (12 had died). The subjects were men who were drawn from a large birth cohort born in Copenhagen, Denmark, from 1959 to 1961. A comprehensive series of measures were obtained on each subject before, during, and shortly after birth as well as at 1 year of age. Muscle tone at birth and day 5 as well as 1-year measures of motor coordination--age to sitting, standing, and walking--were examined. A DSM-III-R diagnosis of alcohol dependence and a measure of lifetime problem drinking served as the 30-year outcome variables. Several measures of childhood motor development significantly predicted alcohol dependence at 30 years of age. These included deficits in muscle tone 5 days after birth, delays in the age to sitting, and delays in the age to walking. Relationships found between adult alcoholism and early delays in motor development offer support for the theory that cerebellar deficits may play a causal role in the addiction process.

Serotonergic modulation of the rat pup ultrasonic isolation call: studies with 5HT1 and 5HT2 subtype-selective agonists and antagonists

A modulatory role for serotonin has been described for the development and expression of the ultrasonic call of infant rat pups during brief maternal separations. In previous studies, serotonin reuptake inhibitors selectively reduced the rate of calling following acute administration to 9-11-day-old pups and a serotonin neurotoxin (MDMA) systematically disrupted the development of ultrasonic vocalizations but not other measures of motor development. In the current studies, we extended our investigations to include drugs with purported receptor subtype selectivities. Consistent with previous reports, acute administration of 5HT1A agonists buspirone and 8-OH-DPAT [+/-)-8-hydroxy-2-(di-N-propylamino)tetralin) reduced the rate of calling at doses which did not affect motor activity or core body temperature. The rate reducing effects of buspirone persisted up to 1 but not 2 h after injection. Administration of purported 5HT1B receptor agonists, CGS12066B (7-trifluoromethyl-4(4-methyl-1-piperazinyl)-pyrrolo[1,2-a] quinoxaline) and TFMPP (1-[3-fluoromethyl)phenyl]-piperazine) increased the rate of calling depending on the specificity of the drug for the 5HT1B receptor. d,l-Propranolol, a 5HT1 receptor antagonist, blocked the effects of both 8-OH-DPAT and TFMPP. m-CPP (1-(3-chlorophenyl)piperazine) and DOI [+/-)-1-(2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenyl)-2-aminopropane), drugs with putative actions at 5HT1C and 5HT2 receptor sites both decreased calling but differed according to their effects on motor activity. Ritanserin, a 5HT2 and 5HT1C antagonist, produced a dose-related increase in call rate. A dose of ritanserin with no apparent intrinsic effects effectively antagonized DOI rate reducing effects but potentiated the rate reducing effects of m-CPP.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Reported social alcohol consumption during pregnancy and infants' development at 18 months.

To determine the relation between mothers' self reported drinking habits before, during, and after pregnancy and infants' mental and motor development at 18 months of age. Follow up study of all singleton live births born to primigravidas living in Dundee and booked into antenatal clinics from 1 May 1985 to 30 April 1986. District of Dundee. 846 children aged 18 months, of whom 592 attended for assessment. Scores on Bayley scales of infant mental and motor development. For full term children, maternal alcohol consumption was not significantly related to any adverse effect on the children's mental or motor development measures at age 18 months. After confounding factors had been controlled for, alcohol consumption before pregnancy and after pregnancy was significantly related to better motor performance and mental performance. Pregnant women probably need not abstain from alcohol altogether as no detectable adverse relation was found between the child's mental and physical development and the mother's weekly consumption at levels in excess of 100g absolute alcohol. However, to allow for a margin of safety and taking into account the findings of an earlier phase of this study on the immediate effects on the newborn, it is recommended that pregnant women should drink no more than eight units of alcohol a week, the equivalent of about one drink a day.

The Early Motor Profile: Correlation with the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency

A correlational study of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency and the Early Motor Profile with 109 kindergarten children showed a significant relation between these two measures of motor abilities. These results support use of the latter profile as a measure of motor development in preschool age children.

Newborn Auditory Brainstem Evoked Responses (ABRs): Longitudinal Correlates in the First Year

The purpose of this study was to determine the degree to which auditory brainstem evoked responses (ABRs) measured in newborns may predict delayed or impaired development during the first year of life. 93 high- and low-risk infants with normal and abnormal newborn ABRs were evaluated at 3, 6, and 9 months of age. Newborns with abnormal ABRs were further grouped according to diagnoses of sensorineural hearing loss (N = 11) or neuromaturational delay (N = 16). Data collected included measures of mental, motor, neurological, auditory, and speech/language development. After adjusting for risk-group membership, infants with abnormal newborn ABRs were found to differ from those with normal ABRs on summary handicap ratings and on individual measures of functioning. Measures of motor development and communicative development were most strongly associated with abnormalities in the newborn ABR. Developmental outcome for the sensorineural group was the poorest, with the performance of the maturational delay group falling between the sensorineural and normal groups on most measures. The predictive accuracy of the newborn ABR was moderate for detecting sensorineural hearing impairment and low to moderate for detecting deviant neurobehavioral development. We conclude that abnormalities in the newborn ABR may indicate diffuse CNS dysfunction in addition to deficits specific to the auditory system.

Relationship between Quantitative and Qualitative Measures of Motor Development

The correlation between a qualitative curriculum-referenced and a norm-referenced quantitative measure of motor development was assessed for 142 girls and 139 boys who ranged in age between 3 and 16 yr. Correlations between the two measures were relatively high, mostly in the .70 to .83 range. These results suggest consistent relationships between qualitative and quantitative measures of motor development in young children and the feasibility of integrating such assessments in planning educational programs.

Assessing motor development in young children

The benefits to be gained from evaluating motor development in young children far outweigh the problems and pitfalls. As information accumulates and is replicated, a more accurate picture of the process of motor development of children is being formed. Research efforts that use a combination of longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches, that focus on both form and performance, and that recognize and need for patient, unbiased data collection are making significant contributions to our understanding of motor development. There is an ever-increasing number of published and unpublished tests purported to be measures of motor development. The vast majority of these assessment instruments are product-oriented and provide information concerning the present status of the child in a varity of areas. They are descriptive and generally establish a standard of performance based on cetain expectations for each chronological age. Product-oriented assessment instruments can be of value to the motor development specialist if they are both valid and reliable. Unfortunately, the validity of many tests is suspect because of the lack of sound rationale, or because of inadequate correlational attempts with other tests purporting to measure the same thing. Product-oriented tests may be classified as either screeing devices or behavioral assessment devices. The Denver Developmental Screening Test, and Purdue Perceptual-Motor survey are easy-to-use tools available for quick but gross classification of children. The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency is a widely used behavioral assessment instrument for young children. There are far fewer process-oriented tests although there is a great need to know more about the developmental progression of movement skill acquisition. The Fundamental Movement Pattern Assessment Instrument and the Developmental Sequence of Fundamental Motor Skills Inventory represent two initial attempts at assessing the quality, rather than the quantity, of movement.