Gender Equality Measures Research Articles

Gender differences in perceived workplace harassment and gender egalitarianism: A comparative cross‐national analysis

AbstractUsing 2015 International Social Survey Program (ISSP) data on 38,179 individuals from 36 countries in 9 relatively homogeneous global regions, we analyze the gender differences and the gender gap in perceived workplace harassment (PWH) with particular attention to gender equality's and gender egalitarianism's roles in molding these differences. We find that despite large regional differences, women in most countries are more likely than men to perceive workplace harassment, although this likelihood is higher in countries that score favorably on our gender equality measures. Hence, political empowerment and better economic opportunities alter women's perceptions of workplace harassment, increasing the probability of their experiencing it. Our results also underscore the important roles of values and gender egalitarian practices. Whereas enhanced gender egalitarianism values increase women's perceptions of workplace harassment, concrete practices tend to reduce them. Especially for management, this result highlights the importance of actually implementing gender equality policies at a corporate level, because a discrepancy between corporate values and practices on this issue will only accentuate the perception of harassment.

Gender inequality and national gender gaps in overconfidence.

Using a large dataset of marathon runners, we estimate country- and gender-specific proxies for overconfidence. Subsequently, we correlate them with a number of indices, including various measures of gender equality. We find that in less gender-equal countries both males and females tend to be more self-confident than in more equal countries. While a substantial gender gap in overconfidence is observed, it only correlates with some sub-indices of gender equality. We conclude that there is likely a weak relationship between OC gender gap and gender inequality.

Rape myth acceptance as a relevant psychological construct in a gender-unequal context: The Hungarian adaptation of the updated Illinois rape myths acceptance scale

The Updated Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (UIRMAS) has been widely used for measuring rape myth acceptance. The scale was created in the United States, however studies have shown that rape myth is a culturally and socially embedded phenomenon. Therefore, in order to measure rape myth acceptance in other parts of the world, the scale needs to be validated. Victim blaming and rape myths are both widespread in public reactions to rape in Hungary (i.e., in media reports and public opinion). Furthermore, Hungary can be characterized by a weak feminist movement and scoring low on gender equality measures. Nevertheless, we expected and found the reliability and validity of the Hungarian version of the Updated Illinois Rape myth acceptance Scale (UIRMAS). In Study 1 we conducted a confirmative factor analysis to assess the structural validity of the scale and identified the original factors of UIRMAS on a large convenience sample (N = 758, 25.4% men 74.6% women). In line with previous empirical evidence we also found that men, people with stronger just-world beliefs and higher sexism accepted rape myths more. In Study 2 we again found support for the original factor structure and construct validity of UIRMAS on a nationally representative sample (N = 1007, 49.2% men 50.8% women), and also tested its convergent and discriminant validity. The results suggest that UIRMAS is a valid and reliable scale in the Hungarian context that can, for example, be used for measuring impact assessment of interventions.

How are gender inequality and violence against women related? Findings from a population‐level community attitudes survey

AbstractLow support for gender equality (GE) predicts attitudes supporting violence against women (VAW). However, little is known about the influence of attitudes toward different manifestations of GE. This study extends knowledge by assessing the relative strength of attitudes to GE across seven theoretically derived dimensions, and their association with attitudes toward VAW. 17,542 Australians participated in the 2017 National Community Attitudes Towards Violence Against Women Survey. Population means were calculated for the following scales formed from survey questions: the Community Attitudes Supportive of Violence Against Women Scale (CASVAWS), the Gender Equality Attitudes Scale (GEAS) and measures within the GEAS representing the theoretical dimensions. There was variation in support for GE between the measures. The lower the support for GE, the higher the support for VAW. Although all GEAS measures included in regression modelling contributed to variance in the CASVAWS, two accounted for more than half. The study suggests benefits in using a multidimensional model of GE to mitigate cultural support for VAW, with emphasis on the private sphere and countering hostility toward women and rigid gender roles and identities.

Gender equality in domestic work and sickness absence - a population-based study on women and men in Sweden

ABSTRACT Division of domestic work by gender has been discussed as part of the explanation why women present a higher sickness absence rate than men. This study aimed to examine the association between gender equality in domestic work and sickness absence. Data from 2,609 co-habiting women and men (aged 19–64) collected in a general population in Sweden were used. Associations between different measures of gender equality in domestic work and numbers of sick-leave days were analyzed with logistic regression analysis adjusted for age, children, and paid work. Results show that women reported lower levels of gender equality than men did. Satisfaction with division of domestic work was in the final model associated with lower odds ratio (OR) for sickness absence in men irrespective of number of days. Work-family conflicts were associated with higher ORs for sickness absence in men, 1–7 sick-leave days (OR 1.51 (CI 1.04–2.18)), and in women, 8–30 days (OR 1.51 (1.00–2.33)). More knowledge on the meaning of gender equality in domestic work in relation to sickness absence for women and men are important for future prevention activities.

The final cut™: Directors, producers and the gender regime of the Swedish film industry

AbstractFocusing on Sweden, this article departs from the proposition that film production and the film industry are governed by institutional arrangements that produce and reproduce gender and gender relations. The article is based on interviews with directors and producers and analyses how Swedish directors and producers describe their roles and relationship, relating this to how these roles are shaped by the law, film policy, and financial arrangements. The article argues that the Swedish film industry rests on a gendered division of labor, that the professions of director and producer are constructed in relation to masculinity, and that the gender equality measures undertaken are not sufficient to come to grips with the gender inequalities in the industry.

Public policy on gender equality in the United Arab Emirates: A critical appraisal

Empowerment of women and girls is firmly on the political agenda in many countries around the world, including the UAE. This paper evaluates public policy to date with a focus on the extent to which historical and cultural factors have helped or hindered progress towards gender equality, and how contemporary influences are serving to advance or impede its progress. It begins with a review of the various composite indicators used for international comparisons and the risks of over-reliance on a single index number as a ‘catch-all’ measure of gender equality. This leads into a comparative case study analysis of the journey of the UAE alongside that of Rwanda, one of the highest-ranking countries in the world for gender equality. The main contribution of the paper is to propose six guiding principles for evaluation of public policy on gender equality that are consistent with the promotion of a sustainable society.

Gender equality in the workplace in Quebec: strategic priority for employers or partial response to institutional pressures?

PurposeThis paper examines the challenges posed for employers by gender equality in the workplace, in a seemingly favourable institutional context (the province of Quebec, Canada), and the reasons why employers adopt (or not) gender equality measures (GEMs) exceeding legal requirements.Design/methodology/approachThe approach draws on both institutional theory and the strategic human resource management (SHRM) approach. Our research is based on a quantitative study involving human resource management professionals in Quebec (n = 296).FindingsThe results allow us to link GEMs with certain SHRM orientations (Yang and Konrad, 2011) and institutional pressures (Lawrence et al., 2009). The findings show that, for approximately two-thirds of the employers in the sample, gender equality was not a strategic priority. Consistent with our hypothesis, a greater number of GEMs were found when gender equality was a strategic priority for the employer. Unionization and legal requirements were also positively correlated with the presence of GEMs.Originality/valueThe findings indicate a combined effect of SHRM and institutions on GEMs. They point out the relative dependency of employers on the pressures stemming from the institutional framework, and it captures some of the current challenges involved in adopting a SHRM approach with a view to achieving gender equality.

Career Advancement for Women in the British Hospitality Industry: The Enabling Factors

Women are historically under-represented in senior management positions in almost all industries. Despite the UK hospitality industry being a major employer of women, there is a clear lack of women in management positions. This research aims to gain insight into the factors enabling women to access senior positions in the UK hospitality industry. Using the gendered organizations perspective, the study analyses female managers’ perceptions about their career advancement within this sector. It identifies key enablers and strategies to facilitate women’s career advancement. The findings reveal that despite improvements in career opportunities for women within the UK hospitality organizations, there is still a long way to go in terms of employment policies and practices that enable women’s career progression, which includes family-friendly practices; proactive and transparent gender equality measures; support networks and mentors; and personal development plan.

Breves considerações sobre a construção e limites da cidadania de gênero na África do Sul

A Constituição sul-africana pós-Apartheid (1996) trouxe inúmeros direitos às mulheres, que antes eram excluídas pela hierarquia racial com base patriarcal instalada no país. Durante o processo de transição para a democracia ocorreram vários debates sobre como construir uma democracia que não fosse cega quanto às relações de gênero. No entanto, muitas das novas leis e políticas não conseguiram abarcar as diferenças existentes entre os distintos grupos de mulheres e não conseguiram reconhecer o fato de que as algumas possuíam experiências diferentes, pois historicamente, haviam sido mais marginalizadas. A partir da leitura de artigos científicos, o presente artigo teve como objetivo analisar medidas de igualdade de gênero que foram introduzidas na Constituição e nas instituições e observar as contradições da aplicação dessas medidas à realidade vivida por muitas mulheres sul-africanas, buscando estudar os limites da cidadania de gênero formulada. Concluiu-se que apesar dos avanços conseguidos pelos movimentos feministas sulafricanos as medidas adotadas para o estabelecimento de uma cidadania de gênero não foram suficientes para realmente mudar o cenário de desigualdade em que as mulheres vivem na África do Sul.

Is the math gender gap associated with gender equality? Only in low-income countries

In their seminal article, Guiso et al. (2008) uncover a positive relationship between several measures of gender equality and the math gender gap (which tends to favor boys) by exploiting cross-sectional variation in PISA test scores from 39 countries - the majority of which belong to the OECD - at a given year (2003). Using five waves of PISA data spanning the period 2003-2015 and exploiting variation both across- and within-countries, we find that the positive association between the female-male gender gap in math test scores and several measures of gender equality vanishes in OECD countries once we account for country fixed effects. Interestingly, our analysis also uncovers a positive and statistically significant association between the math gender gap and several gender equality indicators for countries in the bottom quartile of per capita GDP. This association is robust to controlling for country-level time-invariant unobserved heterogeneity.

Application of ESG measures for gender diversity and equality at the organizational level in a Korean context

PurposeGlobal gender diversity and equality indexes have been developed to promote gender diversity and equality at the country level, but it is difficult to see how those indexes are applied to organizations on a daily basis. The purpose of this study is to examine the application of environmental, social and governance (ESG) measures for gender diversity and equality at the organizational level in a Korean context.Design/methodology/approachBased on the institutional theory, the authors reviewed ESG measures for gender diversity and equality of women funds in four countries (USA, Canada, UK and Japan) and examinedThe Women Fundin Korea through document analysis and interviews.FindingsESG measures in four countries’ women funds mainly assessed the percentage of women in the workforce, on boards and in leadership positions. InThe Women Fund, gender diversity indicators consider the ratio of female to male employees, while gender equality indicators take into account gaps of male and female salaries and positions. This study’s impact analysis indicates that the companies invested in byThe Women Fundhad higher return on assets and return on equity than those without the fund.Research limitations/implicationsAlthough women funds explored in this study exemplify the use of ESG measures to apply global gender diversity and equality indexes at the organizational level, research is needed to examine ESG measures and women funds and their associations. Possible topics include what needs to be measured in ESG, who should be involved, how ESG measures should be applied, what outcomes of using ESG measures would ensue in organizations and how ESG measures relate to regional and global gender diversity.Practical implicationsIn promoting ESG measures that apply global gender diversity and equality at the organizational level, human resource development practitioners, as change agents, can help organizations develop socially responsible and ethical behaviors and transform organizational culture, practice and systems, which may influence organizations’ long-term survival and development as well as financial performance.Social implicationsAs the government’s support and policies guide and drive firms to develop and implement initiatives and programs, the launch and implementation of gender diversity and equality at the organizational level in the form of women funds require a certain level of collaboration between the government and the private sector.Originality/valueThis study on the application of ESG measures for global gender diversity and equality at the organizational level in the form of women funds is timely to engage organizations in dialogue regarding what needs to be done to promote women’s participation and leadership roles in organizations in Korea and other countries.

Gender Equality and the Math Gender Gap

In their seminal article, Guiso et al. (2008) uncover a positive relationship between several measures of gender equality and the math gender gap (which tends to favor boys) by exploiting cross-sectional variation in PISA test scores from 39 countries – the majority of which belong to the OECD – at a given year (2003). Using five waves of PISA data spanning the period 2003-2015 and exploiting variation both across – and within – countries, we find that the positive association between the female-male gender gap in math test scores and several measures of gender equality vanishes in OECD countries once we account for country fixed effects. Interestingly, our analysis also uncovers a positive and statistically significant association between the math gender gap and several gender equality indicators for countries in the bottom quartile of per capita GDP. This association is robust to controlling for country-level time-invariant unobserved heterogeneity.

Resistance and backlash to gender equality

AbstractResistance to efforts to advance gender equality is a common feature of social life, whether in workplaces and other organisations or elsewhere. In this article, we review the typical character, dynamics of and contexts for resistance to gender equality measures. Resistance is an inevitable, although undesirable, response to efforts at progressive social change. Backlash and resistance to gender equality take common forms including: denial of the problem, disavowal of responsibility, inaction, appeasement, co‐option and repression. Resistance may be individual or collective, formal or informal. Pushback against gender equality measures comes more often from members of the privileged group (men) than the disadvantaged group (women). Resistance is a predictable expression of the defence of institutionalised privilege, but it is also shaped by widespread discourses on “sex roles” and “post‐feminism,” the methods adopted to advance gender equality and the contexts in which they take place. Understanding the character and dynamics of resistance and backlash is vital for preventing and reducing them.

STATUS OF GENDER PARITY IN LABOR MARKET OF NEPAL

The gender parity score is a tool to analyze the real status of women over men in a particular aspect of private and public life. To assess the status of gender parity in the labor market and to explore causes and measures of gender inequality in the labor market situation, this study conducted with the title “Status of gender parity in the labor market of Nepal”. This study is mainly based on the secondary data source of Nepal Labor Force Survey (NLFS-III, 2017/18). Essential Information collected through various search engines by simple literature review. This study revealed that the gender parity is favorable to male in most aspects of the labor market in Nepal. Gender disparity in the labor market is reflection of gender discrimination in Nepalese society. By realizing triple roles of women, i.e. reproductive, productive and community managing activities; it is mandatory to free them from subordination for achieving equality, equity and empowerment. Necessary mechanism should make to fulfill their practical needs and strategic needs. The labor market is the proper area for enhancing status of women. It empowers women more effectively than other mechanism. Gender parity in the labor market ensures overall development of the nation. By giving priority to gender matter, it is essential to conduct intensive, broad-based research investigation to find out the potential impact of ongoing labor policy on gender parity and to introduce evidence-based policies to create opportunities for both male and female without prejudice.
 
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The gender gap in competitive chess across countries: Commanding queens in command economies

Currently, the World Chess Federation lists 1,643 male Grandmasters against only 37 females. While the greater attainment of men in competitive chess is well known, the lesser known fact is that the gender gap in competitive chess varies strongly across countries. For instance, for every 100 male players with the attainment level of Candidate Master, there are about 48, 47, 38, 4, 3, and 2 female players in Vietnam, Georgia, China, US (Japan), France (Sweden), and Denmark (Finland), respectively. Noting these large gender discrepancies, this paper constructs a cross-country panel to explore the determinants of these gaps. Controlling for main economic development indicators and several measures of gender equality, a legacy of command economy is found to be the most significant predictor of a smaller gender gap in competitive chess across countries. Various explanations and their implications are discussed.

Cross-National Examination of the Relationship Between Gender Equality and Female Homicide and Rape Victimization.

This study is the first cross-national work to examine the impact of gender equality on both female homicide and rape victimization. The data set from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) was analyzed for 70 countries. Several gender equality measures were significantly and positively related to rape victimization, but were mostly not significant to female homicide. Findings for rape victimization were consistent with the backlash hypothesis, but such findings may be related to the limitations of police rape rates, such as different legal definitions and police-reporting behaviors across countries.

Gender Equality and the Usual Suspects: A Cross-National Study on Female and Male Homicide Victimization

Gender inequality is a central concept in cross-national feminist criminological literature. There is not a readily agreed-upon operationalization of gender inequality. The variation in the operationalization of gender inequality in cross-national research could be the cause for the inconsistent findings. We explored if the operationalization of gender inequality affects the association of the variables with gender-specific homicide across nations. Utilizing SUR and Wald Tests, our results indicate that measurement matters. When a measure of gender inequality includes an income competent, it has an association with gender-specific homicide. We conclude by situating our findings into the larger cross-national literature.

‘The development of physical education in Northern Ireland, 1922-1953 and the role of Joan Burnett Knight’

ABSTRACTThis article examines the state of Physical Education in Northern Ireland’s schools before, during and after the Second World War with a focus on government changes and the role of one of the first organisers to be appointed there to cater for the subject. In the mid-1920s, the new Northern Ireland Ministry of Education was initially of the view that the teaching of physical education was being adequately catered for. However, a scarcity of facilities in many schools and the poor levels of staff expertise in the subject meant that standards remained low in comparison with other nations in Western Europe, despite the area being part of the United Kingdom. Following the passing of the 1938 Physical Training and Recreation Bill, the appointment of inspectors and organisers for physical education by the Northern Ireland Ministry of Education was an important step in improving the situation. Despite this, the provision of trained PE teachers remained an issue throughout the 1940s and following much discussion, in 1953, the first PE College for female students in Northern Ireland was established. Within this context, this paper explores the early career of Joan Burnett Knight, an English-born PE organiser who was employed there from 1944-1950. Through her work in the schools, and her organisation of short-term training course for teachers, along with her public activities, she was able to raise awareness of the value of the subject. This article also discusses the 1949 Lingiad Games, in which she led the Northern Ireland team. In doing so, it illustrates Miss Burnett Knight’s career aspirations and her independent character before the establishment of gender equality measures in employment and at a time when many women were confined to domestic roles.

Early-Career Women Academics: Between Neoliberalism and Gender Conservatism

The article examines the intersection between the gender culture and the neoliberal transformation of research and academia. It focuses on the impact of the transformation on the early-career women academic researchers in the Czech Republic (CR). It examines a sample of women academics to see how their career paths unfold over time and identify the mechanisms, factors, and barriers that affect their academic careers in the early stages. The article looks at 14 excellent early-career women academics from different domains based on two interviews repeated after 7 years and investigates the trajectory of their academic paths from the longitudinal perspective. The combination of a highly conservative gender culture, the neoliberal reforms introduced in the field of research and academia over the past decade, and the resistance to promoting gender equality measures make the CR an informative case to study. I argue that the gender culture of the CR and Czech research and academic institutions and the conditions for work-life balance combine with the neoliberal reforms to have a very negative impact on the early stage of women’s academic careers.