Measures Of Attentional Control Research Articles

STAI-Anxiety and STAI-Depression Revisited

Abstract. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) is widely used to measure anxiety in academic, psychiatric, and medical settings. However, it has been proposed that the trait scale does not measure pure anxiety but contains subscales that measure either anxiety or depression. As this may have implications for the interpretation of research, we investigated the differential correlates of these two subscales. Participants ( N = 171; Mage = 23.6 years) completed measures of attentional control (attentional focusing; attentional shifting), behavioral approach sensitivity (BAS), trait anger, and interpersonal fear. STAI-anxiety was predicted by interpersonal fear, and trait anger when STAI-depression was held constant. By contrast, STAI-depression was predicted by BAS and attentional shifting when STAI-anxiety was held constant. To further illustrate the functional significance of these results, we reanalyzed a published study that originally showed that total STAI scores predicted affective cognitive control in the emotional face Stroop task. Results showed that STAI-anxiety and STAI-depression differentially predicted the cognitive control of distraction. The significance of our results is discussed in relation to interpreting the STAI in academic and neuropsychiatric/clinical settings.

Do the eyes have it? A comparison of eye-movement and attentional-probe-based approaches to indexing attentional control within the antisaccade paradigm.

Individual differences in the ability to control visual attention, often termed "attentional control," have been of particular interest to cognitive researchers. This has led to the development of numerous tasks intended to measure attentional control, including the antisaccade task. While attentional performance on the antisaccade task is typically indexed through the recording of eye movements, increasingly researchers are reporting the use of probe-based methods of indexing attentional performance on the task. Critically, no research has yet determined the convergence of measures yielded by each of these assessment methods, nor compared the reliability of these measures. The purpose of the present study was to examine whether antisaccade cost measures yielded by a probe-based adaptation of the task converge with antisaccade cost measures yielded by an eye movement task in the sample of individuals, and whether these alternative approaches have comparable levels of psychometric reliability. Ninety-three individuals completed an eye movement task and a probe-based task at two assessment times, and an index of antisaccade cost was computed from each task at each assessment time. Analyses revealed that the antisaccade cost index yielded by each task demonstrated high internal reliability (eye-movement, rSB = .92; probe-based, rSB = .80-.84) and high test-retest reliability (eye-movement, rSB = .82; probe-based, rSB = .72), but modest measurement convergence (r = .21-.35). Findings suggest that probe-based and eye-movement based antisaccade tasks measure shared variance in attentional control, although their measures do not converge strongly enough to be considered equivalent measures of attentional control.

Control of Attention in Rhesus Monkeys Measured Using a Flanker Task.

At least three processes determine whether information we encounter is attended to or ignored. First, attentional capture occurs when attention is drawn automatically by "bottom up" processes, to distinctive, salient, rewarding, or unexpected stimuli when they enter our sensory field. Second, "top down" attentional control can direct cognitive processing towards goal-relevant targets. Third, selection history, operates through repeated exposure to a stimulus, particularly when associated with reward. Attentional control is measured using tasks that require subjects to selectively attend to goal-relevant stimuli in the face of distractions. In the Eriksen flanker task, human participants report which direction a centrally placed arrow is facing, while ignoring "flanking" arrows that may point in the opposite direction. Attentional control is evident to the extent that performance reflects only the direction of the central arrow. We describe four experiments in which we systematically assessed attentional control in rhesus monkeys using a flanker task. In Experiment 1, monkeys responded according to the identity of a central target, and accuracy and latency varied systematically with manipulations of flanking stimuli, validating our adaptation of the Eriksen flanker task. We then tested for converging evidence of attentional control across three experiments in which flanker performance was modulated by the distance separating targets from flankers (Experiment 2), luminance differences (Experiment 3), and differences in associative value (Experiment 4). The approach described is a new and reliable measure of attentional control in rhesus monkeys that can be applied to a wide range of situations with freely behaving animals.

The visual arrays task: Visual storage capacity or attention control?

Extant literature suggests that performance on visual arrays tasks reflects limited-capacity storage of visual information. However, there is also evidence to suggest that visual arrays task performance reflects individual differences in controlled processing. The purpose of this study is to empirically evaluate the degree to which visual arrays tasks are more closely related to memory storage capacity or measures of attention control. To this end, we conducted new analyses on a series of large data sets that incorporate various versions of a visual arrays task. Based on these analyses, we suggest that the degree to which the visual arrays is related to memory storage ability or effortful attention control may be task-dependent. Specifically, when versions of the task require participants to ignore elements of the target display, individual differences in controlled attention reliably provide unique predictive value. Therefore, at least some versions of the visual arrays tasks can be used as valid indicators of individual differences in attention control. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Lessons unlearned: A conceptual review and meta-analysis of the relationship between the Attention Control Scale and Objective Attention Control

ABSTRACT Attention control is central to many models of emotion. Among the most common measures of attention, control is the Attention Control Scale (ACS), which has exerted considerable influence in terms of the volume and breadth of research findings, with its use in cognitive-experimental research continuing to increase in recent years. However, there are growing concerns about whether the ACS genuinely indexes attention control. The present paper considers the context and development of the ACS, reviews and meta-analyses the available evidence regarding its association with objective measures of attention control. Meta-analytic results from nine studies (total n = 1274) indicated that the full-scale ACS was not significantly associated with behavioural measures of attentional control (r = .067, p = .093, N = 1274, 95% CI: −.011, .145). Findings indicated likely missing studies with lower correlations suggesting the true association may be smaller. Limited evidence of shared variance between subjective and objective measures of attention control contrasts with considerable evidence that the scale is closely correlated with dispositional traits (e.g. anxiety, agreeableness) that could plausibly influence responding. Thus, on the balance of current findings, we conclude that there is little compelling evidence that responding on the ACS reflects genuine attention control abilities.

The effects of increased dopamine-levels on attentional control during reading and reading comprehension

The aim of the present study was to gain insight into the neurobiological processes, particularly the dopaminergic processes, underlying attentional control during reading and reading comprehension. In order to test the effects of increased levels of dopamine (DA) in the brain, female university students (N = 80), half of them being carriers of the DRD4-7R allele and half of them not, participated in a double-blind placebo-controlled within-subjects experiment in which they were orally administered levodopa or a placebo before reading a text. After reading the text, participants reported on their attentional control during reading and completed comprehension questions. Pharmacologically increasing DA levels in the brain negatively influenced reading comprehension. This effect was moderate (ηp2 = .13). No interaction effects of condition and DRD4 genotype were found, for either attentional control or reading comprehension. Exploratory analyses showed that increased DA levels in the brain positively influenced fluctuations in attentional control, but only in a group of slow readers. No effects of increased DA were found for the two other attentional control measures used in the present study and no effects of increased DA on attentional control were found for fast readers. Results are discussed from the perspective of the inverted U-shape theory and the possible dopamine-related mechanisms.

Changing Minds: A Pilot Feasibility Study of Mindfulness Training for At-Risk Adolescents

Youth at risk for negative health outcomes due to reduced access to social, mental health, and educational support systems are in particular need of resources promoting social-emotional resilience and positive educational outcomes. A growing body of research documents the positive benefits of mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs), but few studies have examined the impact of MBIs for at-risk adolescents, particularly in school settings where barriers to access can be minimized. This pilot feasibility study examined the effects of a nine-week school-based MBI, augmented by cross-course curricular material, in a group of high school students attending a transfer school, designed to re-engage students who have dropped out or fallen behind in credits (N = 63). Pre- and post- MBI, students completed self-report measures of attention control, trait anxiety, coping, and emotion regulation, and attendance and academic achievement records were obtained from the school. Findings showed that the MBI promoted social-emotional resilience over the course of the semester. Moreover, students who took part in the science curriculum component of the program showed a trend for improved academic performance. Findings are discussed in terms of the potential for school-based MBIs to promote positive outcomes in at-risk youth.

Development and validation of the Early Executive Functions Questionnaire: A carer-administered measure of Executive Functions suitable for 9- to 30-month-olds.

Executive functions (EFs) enable us to control our attention and behavior in order to set and work toward goals. Strong EF skills are linked to better academic performance, and greater health, wealth, and happiness in later life. Research into EF development has been hampered by a lack of scalable measures suitable for infancy through to toddlerhood. The 31-item Early Executive Functions Questionnaire (EEFQ) complements temperament measures by targeting cognitive and regulatory capabilities. Exploratory Factor Analysis (n=486 8- to 30-month-olds) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (n=317 9- to 30-month-olds) indicate Inhibitory Control, Flexibility, and Working Memory items load onto a common "Cognitive Executive Function (CEF)" factor, while Regulation items do not. The CEF factor shows strong factorial measurement invariance for sex, and partial strong factorial measurement invariance for age. CEF and Regulation scores show limited floor and ceiling effects, good internal consistency, short-term stability, and convergent validity with carer-report measures of attentional control. The EEFQ is sensitive to developmental change. Results indicate that the widely overlooked period between late infancy and early toddlerhood may be a sensitive period for EF development. The low-resource demands of the EEFQ afford the possibility to study emergent EFs at scale; opening up new opportunities in basic developmental and intervention research.

The association between self-report and behavioural measure of attentional control: Evidence of no relationship between ACS scores and antisaccade performance

Attentional control theory proposes a relationship between poor attentional control and heightened anxiety vulnerability. While attentional control is often assessed via self-report, it is unclear to what extent self-report measures indicate attentional control abilities. This study sought to determine the relationship between questionnaire and behavioural measures of attentional control, and to examine their association with psychological symptoms. A well-powered non-clinical sample (N = 207) completed the Attentional Control Scale (ACS) and measures of psychological symptoms (depression, anxiety, stress), as well as the antisaccade task as a behavioural measure of attentional control. Antisaccade performance was associated with both anxiety (r = −0.187) and stress (r = −0.195). ACS scores also correlated with all measures of psychological distress (r = −0.248 to −0.459). However, there was no evidence for an association between ACS scores and antisaccade performance (r = 0.027 to 0.110). Bayesian analyses indicated moderate to strong evidence that the null hypothesis is true (B10 = 0.094 to 0.302), suggesting an absence of an association. The present study is consistent with growing evidence that self-reported measures of attentional control may better reflect beliefs about attentional control abilities, highlighting the importance of selecting appropriate measures of the intended construct when researching individual differences in attentional control.

Maternal Attentional Control Moderates the Association Between Increased Depression and Controlling Feeding Practices During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Parental distress is associated with less healthful child feeding practices. In this preliminary study, we examined how changes in distress from before to during the COVID-19 pandemic were associated with similar changes in feeding practices in a sample of mothers of preschool-aged children. In addition, we examined how pre-pandemic laboratory measures of maternal self-regulation moderated this association. A total of 36 mothers from an ongoing study on parent and child self-regulation completed surveys assessing parental distress (i.e., maternal depression, parenting stress) and child feeding practices during pandemic-related stay-at-home orders in May-June 2020. These mothers had completed the same measures approximately 2 years earlier, along with laboratory assessments of inhibitory and attentional control. Pre-pandemic laboratory measures of attentional control significantly moderated the association between increased maternal depression and use of controlling feeding practices, such that mothers with better attentional, but not inhibitory, control scores did not show an effect of increased depression on feeding practices. These results provide preliminary evidence that acute increases in parental distress associated with "stay-at-home" orders affect feeding practices, specifically for mothers with lower levels of attentional control abilities.

A longitudinal trait-state model of attentional control: Implications for repetitive negative thinking

BackgroundAttentional control refers to the ability to direct, focus, and shift attention voluntarily, and poor attentional control may confer risk for various affective disorders by increasing repetitive negative thinking. Although attentional control has been described as a trait, it is unclear if it is a time-varying (TV) or state-like factor versus a time-invariant (TI) or trait-like personality characteristic. MethodsIn a 6-wave, 5-month longitudinal study, community participants (n = 1,251) completed the Attentional Control Scale (Derryberry & Reed, 2002), the most commonly used measure of attentional control that includes two components: Focusing and Shifting. A latent variable (trait-state-occasion) model was applied to the two components. ResultsThe results showed that although estimates of TI factor variance and TV factor variance were both significant for Focusing and Shifting, the proportion of TI factor variance (0.81, 0.77) was significantly greater than the amount of TV factor variance (0.18, 0.22). Furthermore, although TV factor stability was statistically significant for Focusing and Shifting, the size of the coefficients was small to moderate in magnitude. In predicting latent repetitive negative thinking at each of the six time points, regression weights for the attentional control TI factor were significant and larger than those for the TV factor (which were generally not significant). LimitationsRelatively short timeframe of 5 months and exclusive reliance on self-report measures. ConclusionsThese findings suggest that self-reported attentional control is largely TI and that it is this TI component that predicts repetitive negative thinking.

Are individual differences in attention control related to working memory capacity? A latent variable mega-analysis.

The current study examined whether there are coherent individual differences in attention control abilities and whether they are related to variation in working memory capacity. Data were pooled from multiple studies over 12 years of data collection. Mega-analyses on the combined data set suggested that most of the attention control measures had adequate reliabilities and were weakly to moderately related to one another. A number of latent variable mega-analyses suggested that the attention control measures loaded onto a broad attention control factor and this factor was consistently related to working memory capacity. Furthermore, working memory capacity was generally related to each individual attention control measure. These results provide important evidence for the notion that there is a coherent attention control factor and this factor is related to working memory capacity consistent with much prior research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Increasing cognitive load attenuates the moderating effect of attentional inhibition on the relationship between posttraumatic stress symptoms and threat-related attention bias variability

Theory and empirical evidence suggest that those with higher posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptoms and better attentional control (i.e., the strategic control of higher-order executive attention in regulating bottom-up, stimulus driven responses to prepotent stimuli; Sarapas et al., 2017) can use that ability to disengage and shift attention away from threat stimuli and reduce threat-related attentional dysregulation (i.e., avoidance/overcontrollers). Those with relatively worse attentional control lack the requisite resources to do this, leading to prolonged attentional engagement with threat stimuli and threat-related attention dysregulation (i.e., maintenance/undercontrollers). Given that attentional control is a limited resource, strategic avoidance of threat information or reduced threat-related attention dysregulation may not be possible among those with relatively higher attentional control when cognitive load is relatively high. To test this hypothesis, the interaction between PTS symptoms, attentional control, and cognitive load was examined as a predictor of threat-related attentional bias and threat-related attention bias variability. Participants (N = 125 undergraduate students) were randomly assigned to high or low load conditions. Participants completed self-report measures of PTS symptoms, a behavioral measure of attentional control, and a novel task that assessed threat-related attentional bias via eye movements and threat-related attention bias variability via button press. The results of a series of hierarchical regressions showed that attentional control moderated the relationship between PTS symptoms and threat-related attention bias variability in the low, but not high, load condition. This moderation effect was not observed for threat-related attentional bias assessed via eye-tracking. Consistent with theory, under conditions of higher cognitive load, overcontrollers may not be able to use attentional control to consistently regulate threat-related attention. Study findings suggest that it may be important to consider contextual factors that increase cognitive load, as well as individual differences in attentional control, when developing attention bias modification interventions to reduce PTS symptomatology.

Mindfulness interventions improve momentary and trait measures of attentional control: Evidence from a randomized controlled trial.

Mindfulness interventions have been shown to improve several subcomponents of attention; however, the psychological mechanisms driving these improvements are unknown. Mindfulness interventions train individuals to monitor present moment experiences while adopting an attitude of acceptance toward these experiences. We conducted a theoretically driven randomized controlled trial to test the putative mechanisms of mindfulness training that drive improvements in attentional control. Participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 conditions: (a) monitor and accept (MA) training, a standard 8-week mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) intervention that included cultivation of both monitoring and acceptance skills; (b) monitor only (MO) training, a well-matched modified 8-week MBSR-adapted intervention that focused on monitoring skills only; or (c) no treatment (NT) control. Momentary attentional control was measured via ecological momentary assessment for 3 days at baseline and postintervention. Trait attentional control was assessed at baseline and postintervention using traditional self-report. Participants also completed a dichotic listening task to assess sustained attention at baseline and postintervention. We found that MA and MO participants improved in momentary and trait attentional control (but not attention task performance) relative to NT participants. Analyses of indirect effects were consistent with the possibility that increased momentary attentional control partially accounts for MA/MO intervention-related increases in trait attentional control. This randomized controlled trial provides one of the first experimental tests of the mechanisms of mindfulness interventions that drive improvements in attention outcomes. These findings support the notion that present-focused monitoring skills training drives mindfulness intervention-related improvements in momentary attentional control, which in turn fosters greater trait attentional control. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

The Effects of Stoic Training and Adaptive Working Memory Training on Emotional Vulnerability in High Worriers

Previous research has indicated a causal relationship between attentional control and anxiety with literature finding that attentional control training combined with mindfulness meditation may lead to cognitive improvements in high worriers. The current study investigates whether the practical application of Stoicism, a philosophy originating from the Hellenistic period, will provide similar self-report and cognitive improvement in a sample of high worriers. 45 high worriers were randomly allocated into one of three training groups: an active control 1-back, a combined adaptive dual n-back and Stoic training and a Stoic training only group. Participants were tested on anxiety and rumination as well as measures of attentional control and a nascent scale to measure Stoic ideation, pre- and post- an 8-session training period. Results found significant effects of Stoic training on rumination and self-efficacy. Text analyses of the Stoic training found reduced frequencies of anxious and negatively valenced words questions related to self-assessments and planning. The study provides a positive foundation for the further research and development of Stoic training. The wider implications of these results are discussed.

The Role of Attentional Control in Attention to Emotional Stimuli Among Middle-Aged and Older Adults

Prior studies have examined age differences in attention to emotional stimuli; in the current study, we considered how this might relate to dispositional measures of attentional control across age groups. Participants were 116 middle-aged (aged 35 – 64 years) and 39 older (aged 65-86 years) adults in the United States. In the study, participants filled in the Emotional Attentional Control Scale. Then participants watched fearful, happy, neutral, and disgusting videos. The gaze time for each video was measured by an eye tracker. Results did not show significant age difference in attention to happy and neutral videos. However, middle-aged adults gazed relatively more to the disgusting video and relatively less to the fearful video, t (115) =2.16, p =.03. The opposite pattern was found among older adults, t (38) =5.85, p<.001. Self-reported emotional attentional control was not significantly related to attention in either age group. These findings suggest that different stimuli may yield age differences in fixation that are a less consistent pattern with the age-related positivity effect reported in previous studies, and also that self-reported emotional attentional control may not relate to gaze patterns.

Supplemental Material for Mindfulness Interventions Improve Momentary and Trait Measures of Attentional Control: Evidence From a Randomized Controlled Trial

Supplemental Material for Mindfulness Interventions Improve Momentary and Trait Measures of Attentional Control: Evidence From a Randomized Controlled Trial

Improving the validity of the Armed Service Vocational Aptitude Battery with measures of attention control.

Improving the validity of the Armed Service Vocational Aptitude Battery with measures of attention control.

Improving the Validity of the Armed Service Vocational Aptitude Battery with Measures of Attention Control

We evaluated the predictive value of the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) at the latent level, using multitasking as a proxy for real-world job performance. We also examined whether adding measures of attention control to the ASVAB could improve its predictive validity. To answer these questions, data were collected from 171 young adults recruited from the Georgia Institute of Technology and the greater Atlanta community. Both regression and latent variable analyses revealed that the ASVAB does predict multitasking at the latent level but that measures of attention control add substantial predictive validity in explaining multitasking above and beyond the ASVAB, fluid intelligence, and processing speed. Theoretical as well as practical applications of these results are discussed in terms of theories of attention control, and potential cost savings in selection for military positions.

The Role of Attentional Control in Cognitive Deficits Associated With Chronic Pain

Cognitive deficits in chronic pain are often attributed to difficulties in attentional control. According to the deficit view, these difficulties stem from a reduction in attentional capacity driven by attentional focus on pain experience; alternatively, according to the motivated-attention view, attentional biases toward pain-relevant threats in the environment reduce attention available for everyday tasks and goals. We tested both accounts using a task in which 72 people with chronic pain and 72 without chronic pain performed a simple perceptual task while attempting to ignore pain-relevant images of body mutilations or neutral scenes. They also completed a common test of attentional control. Although people with chronic pain reported subjective difficulty with attentional control and were slower on both tasks, groups did not differ on behavioral measures of attentional control. Findings suggest that attentional control may not be an optimal target for interventions intended to improve cognitive function in chronic pain.