Mean Price Research Articles

Analysis of consumption expenditure on animal protein among farming households in Osun state, Nigeria

This study investigated the consumption expenditure on animal protein in Osun State, Nigeria with a view of describing the Socio-economic characteristics of farming households consuming the selected animal protein foods studied. A probability sampling method was employed to randomly pick a sample size comprising 120.0 responders within the designated study area. The data revealed that a majority of household heads were male, with limited formal education, and primarily engaged in agricultural occupations. Data gathered from the participants was subjected to descriptive analysis techniques, including frequency distribution, percentage calculations, and the budget share index. The findings from this analysis revealed a significant influence of socio-economic factors, including gender, marital status, and educational level, on the demand for animal protein foods within the studied households. The mean price for the animal protein products is as follows: Beef N3,540, Goat meat N3,877.5, Sheep meat N2,922.5, Egg N1,756.2, Fish N4,219.1 and Chicken N4,417.5 respectively. Percentage share in the following animal protein is as follows: beef (7.11%), Goat meat (18.69%), Sheep meat (14.09%), Egg (8.47%), Fish (20.34%) and Chicken (21.30%) respectively. The study recommends that rural households be encouraged to diversify their income sources and informal Education should be provided on the outcome of inadequate protein in their diet. It helps to prevent malnutrition in the study area and the nation at large.

An Age-Specific Crisis Awareness Survey of COVID-19 Vaccines and Treatments Among Healthy Japanese Adults.

Introduction and objectives The spread of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been a worldwide phenomenon. This study conducted a chronological survey of crisis awareness regarding COVID-19 within different age groups. Methods An internet-based survey was performed on healthy Japanese adults to investigate the value of a hypothetical prophylactic vaccine and therapeutic drug for COVID-19 in each age group. In total, 12 groups comprising males and females in six different age groups, leading to a total of 1,200 individuals, were surveyed on a weekly basis. The survey was conducted on Friday of each week commencing from February 14, 2020, to April 10, 2020. At certain times or events such as when the government released major announcements or when there was a rapid increase in the number of infected individuals, a similar survey was conducted on an additional 1,200 individuals per week. Results A total of 12 surveys, including weekly surveys spanning over nine weeks, were conducted; a total of 19,113 samples from 12,254 individuals were obtained. The mean price for a hypothetical prophylactic vaccine was 2876.3 JPY (26.9 USD) at the first survey and was significantly increased to 3357.4 JPY (31.4 USD) for the most recent survey (p<0.0001). The percentage of healthy individuals who were unwilling to pay for a hypothetical therapeutic drug at the onset of COVID-19 symptoms was higher in the young age group than in the elderly groups at all phases, indicating a low level of crisis awareness among some young individuals. On the other hand, the percentage of those willing to pay for more than the standard prophylaxis influenza vaccine remained almost the same in all age groups, and it also increased when COVID-19 infection was widespread. In the sub-analysis, femaleswho have childrenand married individuals tended to answer higher costs for prevention. Conclusions Changes in crisis awareness in all age groups were found to be associated with an increasing familiarity along with an increase in the number of locally infected individuals. Though the percentage of those who will not pay was higher in the young age group than in the elderly age group, the percentage of those who will pay more than the standard costs of influenza vaccine or treatment drugs was the same between each aging group.

Economic Impact of Trypanosomosis on Camels (Camelus Dromedarius) in North-West, Nigeria

Desert encroachment accelerated by global warming threatens the lives and livelihood of scores of farming families. However, camels can withstand the harsh climatic conditions and provide draught power thereby supporting subsistence agriculture and other economic activities. This study aimed to investigate the economic-impact of camel Trypanosomiasis (Surra) in two communities in North-West, Nigeria using structured questionnaires. All the 99 respondents interviewed were males and over 30 years of age with majority of them having Islamic/Quaranic education. The economic impacts identified include death (42%), poor milk production (38%) and reduced draught power (38%). The mean prices of live camels differ between the two study areas; ₦301,928.57 vs. ₦128,100.00 and ₦184,377.55 vs.₦82,100.00 for healthy adults and young camels in Kano and Katsina states, respectively. About 38−54% loss in value of live camels estimated at ₦114,581.63−₦164,755.09 in Kano and ₦48,850−₦76,100.00 in Katsina was attributed to Surra. Similarly, Surra is believed to account for over 90% loss in milk production in camels, where an estimated daily loss of over ₦7,000.00 was recorded. Although the estimated impacts were based on the opinion of a few randomly selected respondents, the huge financial cost associated with Surra is alarming and deserves attention. It is evident that this disease threatens food security and impedes the achievement of sustainable development goals. These findings bring to fore the socioeconomic importance of Surra in the study area and call for the formulation of cost-effective control measures.

Direct Trade Sourcing Strategies for Specialty Coffee

Problem definition: Leading specialty coffee roasters rely on direct trade to source premium coffee beans. We examine a roaster who sells two basic types of roasts: (1) a single-origin roast sourced from a specific locale and (2) a blend roast that uses a mix of beans from sources that vary over the course of a year. The prices of blend roasts are lower than those of single-origin roasts and appeal to a larger market. We study how characteristics of the operating and market environment affect the optimal sourcing strategy for single-origin beans. Methodology/results: We develop a two-stage stochastic program with recourse that reflects these characteristics. A roaster has the option to allocate some of the single-origin beans for sale under a blend label, known as downward substitution. We identify three distinct optimal sourcing strategies—specialized (no downward substitution), diversified (consistent downward substitution), and mixed (between these extremes)—and show that they are robust under different definitions of yield and demand. Managerial implications: We identify four main insights: (1) Two factors determine which strategy is optimal: the mean price of the inferior product (blend label) and the marginal cost of the superior product (single-origin label). (2) When compared with the newsvendor model, we find distinct structural differences across strategies. For example, whereas the effects of increasing uncertainty on optimal quantity align with the newsvendor model under a mixed strategy, the effects are distinctly different under specialized and diversified strategies (e.g., monotonic decreasing behavior for specialized, no change in quantity under diversified). (3) The weighted average price of an agricultural product is decreasing in negative yield–price correlation. We coin this as the “farmer’s curse,” which carries lessons for direct trade sourcing (e.g., advocating against paying the grower at postharvest market prices). (4) We find evidence of a virtuous feedback loop wherein the grower–roaster relationship becomes stronger over time. Our findings also point to a simple signal that policymakers may use to identify coffee growing locales where targeted interventions can improve grower welfare. Funding: B. Kazaz is thankful for summer support provided by the Whitman School of Management, Syracuse University. Supplemental Material: The online appendix is available at https://doi.org/10.1287/msom.2021.0586 .

Charting the Etanercept Journey: Tracing Cost Dynamics in Poland's Off-Patent Market from Reference Drug Rivalry to Biosimilar Monopoly.

To evaluate the pricing of etanercept (ETN) reference and biosimilar drugs in a changing competitive to monopolized market. We conducted a comprehensive, retrospective analysis of ETN market competition, specifically changes in tender price based on shifts in market monopoly, including the effects on cost evolution, in the off-patent market in Poland. We included a total of 473 tenders for ETN purchase in dedicated biologic drug reimbursement programs, covering both pre-filled syringes and automatic injectors. This study covers the timeframe from November 2017 to December 2023, throughout which we evaluated a unique setting of ETN market re-monopolization from the perspective of payer, hospital and patient benefits resulting from changing cost calculations. Between 2017 and 2022, Erelzi was recorded as having the largest total tender volume (59%), with a mean price [per ETN daily defined dose (DDD)] of €7.28, followed by Enbrel (31%, €8.34) and Benepali (10%, €9.45), respectively. Over the last 6 months of waning market competition, the mean price for winning bids was estimated at €5.69. After market re-monopolization by an ETN biosimilar, the mean price of winning bids increased to €8.09, and continued to increase (€9.71) in the last 6 months of available follow-up. In contrast to the competitive era, no significant relationship between tender volume and winning price was recorded after re-monopolization. In the most recent tenders, mean ETN prices increased up to €15.82, nearly tripling the lowest prices of the competitive market period. In the early re-monopolization market, mean annual treatment cost per patient is estimated at over €3800, which exceeds therapy costs in the prior competitive market years, and is expected to increase to over €6200 based on the most recent tenders. On a healthcare system level, this corresponds to over €3.42 million excess costs due to market monopoly. Higher ETN prices resulted in downstream failure of regulatory incentives to promote affordable biologics. Due to higher pricing, hospitals lost over an estimated €2.52 million, with possible risk of treatment restrictions. For the same reason, the public payer achieved comparable savings, allowing for partial coverage of higher reimbursement expenses. This nation-level scenario of market re-monopolization by a biosimilar drug confirms net loss and excess costs for the healthcare payer, as can be expected from economic theory. The upwards drug repricing and restriction of treatment availability occurs much more rapidly than the decrement in a period of market competition.

Food price trends during the COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil.

The present study aims to analyze the trends in food price in Brazil with emphasis on the period of the Covid-19 pandemic (from March 2020 to March 2022). Data from the Brazilian Household Budget Survey and the National System of Consumer Price Indexes were used as input to create a novel data set containing monthly prices (R$/Kg) for the foods and beverages most consumed in the country between January 2018 and March 2022. All food items were divided according to the Nova food classification system. We estimated the mean price of each food group for each year of study and the entire period. The monthly price of each group was plotted to analyze changes from January 2018 to March 2022. Fractional polynomial models were used to synthesize price changes up to 2025. Results of the present study showed that in Brazil unprocessed or minimally processed foods and processed culinary ingredients were more affordable than processed and ultra-processed foods. However, trend analyses suggested the reversal of the pricing pattern. The anticipated changes in the prices of minimally processed food relative to ultra-processed food, initially forecasted for Brazil, seem to reflect the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on the global economy. These results are concerning as the increase in the price of healthy foods aggravates food and nutrition insecurity in Brazil. Additionally, this trend encourages the replacement of traditional meals for the consumption of unhealthy foods, increasing a health risk to the population.

Comparison of Tobacco Product Prices at Fort Liberty Army Installation and Surrounding Community Areas, 2021.

High rates of tobacco use persist in the U.S. military, with 18.4% of service members smoking cigarettes in 2018. The Department of Defense's (DoD) 2017 policy required that tobacco retailers on military installations set tobacco product prices equal to the most common community price, including tax, but there is limited evidence confirming whether local retailers are adhering to this policy. We examined tobacco product pricing in tobacco retailers on- and off-post at the largest U.S. Army installation, Fort Liberty, and Cumberland County, North Carolina. Between June and August 2021, we collected data on tobacco product availability, price, and promotions from retailers on Fort Liberty (n = 14) and a random sample of off-post retailers within 10 miles of installation gates (n = 52). We calculated the mode, mean, and median price of each product, plus the difference in these prices at on- and off-post retailers. We used Welch's t-test to test differences in mean prices between on- versus off-post retailers. The mode, mean, and median prices of cigarette packs and cartons were lower on-post than off-post (eg, $0.51-$0.55 cheaper for Marlboro cigarette packs on-post). However, the mode, mean, and median prices of smokeless tobacco products and little cigars were higher on-post than off-post (eg, $0.82-$0.89 more costly for Swisher Sweets 2-packs on-post). Results highlight the need for continued enforcement to ensure compliance with the 2017 DoD policy. Comprehensive policy action to reduce tobacco price disparities on- and off-post is critical to reducing high rates of tobacco use among service members. Despite the implementation of the 2017 DoD pricing policy, some tobacco products remain cheaper at tobacco retailers on-post compared to off-post retailers. Our results highlight the need for greater routine surveillance to increase implementation of the policy-particularly for cigarettes-to reduce high rates of tobacco use among service members.

Citrate-based dietary alkali supplements available in Germany: an overview

BackgroundFruits and vegetables are abundant in alkali precursors and effectively reduce the Potential Renal Acid Load (PRAL) from diet. Oral alkali supplements are supposed to exert comparable alkalizing effects on the human body, and have been shown to beneficially affect bone and kidney health. A comparative analysis of the available dietary alkali supplements in Germany was performed, contrasting their potential PRAL-lowering potential.MethodsWe reviewed the currently available dietary citrate-based alkali supplements sold in Germany with a special focus on their mineral content, their PRAL-lowering potential and other characteristics inherent to each product. Supplements containing either potassium-, calcium- or magnesium citrate or any combination of these organic salts were reviewed. The total alkali load (TAL) was calculated based on the recommended daily dosage (RDD).ResultsSixteen supplements with a mean alkali powder content of 220.69 ± 111.02 g were identified. The mean magnesium content per RDD was 239.93 ± 109.16 mg. The mean potassium and median calcium content were 550 ± 325.58 mg and 280 (240) mg, respectively. Median TAL was 1220 (328.75) mg. The PRAL-lowering potential from a single RDD ranged from − 51.65 mEq to -8.32 mEq. Substantial price differences were found, and the mean price of the examined supplements was 16.67 ± 5.77 Euros. The median price for a 1 mEq PRAL-reduction was 3.01 (3.14) cents, and ranged from 0.77 cents to 10.82 cents.ConclusionsNoticeable differences between the identified alkali supplements were encountered, warranting an individual and context-specific approach in daily clinical practice.

Variables affecting new drug prices in South Korea's pricing system.

Objective: The price of pharmaceuticals is important from the economic and industrial perspectives but as well as patients' access to treatment. This study aimed to analyze the variables affecting the prices of new drugs in South Korea's pricing system. Methods: Data on 192 new drugs listed in South Korea from 2012 to 2022 were collected from the official website of the Health Insurance Review and Assessment Service. The independent variables included drugs for severe diseases, alternatives, number of patients, number of advanced 7 countries listed, budget impact, and listing period. The dependent variables included annual treatment cost and the price ratio to the advanced 7 country's average adjusted price. Descriptive statistics of variables, linear correlations between quantitative independent and dependent variables, and associations between independent and dependent variables were analyzed. Results: The mean annual treatment cost and price ratio to the advanced 7 country's average adjusted price were higher for drugs for severe diseases and those with no alternatives. Annual treatment cost and price ratio to the advanced 7 country's average adjusted price were negatively correlated with the number of patients and positively correlated with the number of advanced 7 countries listed. Annual treatment cost was affected by the variables drugs for severe diseases, alternatives, number of patients, number of advanced 7 countries listed, and budget impact. The price ratio to the advanced 7 country's average adjusted price was affected by drugs for severe diseases, alternatives, and the number of patients. Conclusion: This study revealed the effect of different variables on the prices of new drugs in South Korea, allowing for the development of a more effective assessment system to evaluate the prices of new drugs while ensuring profitability for pharmaceutical companies, sustainability of public insurance, and accessibility to drugs by patients.

Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on food availability and affordability: an interrupted time series analysis in Ghana

BackgroundIn Africa, approx. 675 million people were at risk of food insecurity. COVID-19 pandemic is likely to have exacerbated this situation, by damaging populations’ access to and affordability of foods. This study is aimed at estimating the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on availability and prices of essential food commodities at 20 large markets in Ghana.MethodsData on food availability and food retail prices collected through weekly market-level data during the period from July 2017 to September 2020 were used in this study. We performed interrupted time-series analyses and estimated the percentage increases between the observed and predicted food prices by food group and by region to assess the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on food prices.ResultsAs a result, the impact of COVID-19 on food availability was limited. However, the results of interrupted time-series analyses indicate a significant increase in overall mean food prices in Greater Accra, Eastern and Upper East regions. It was also found that mean price of starchy roots, tubers and plantains significantly increased across regions.DiscussionThe impact of COVID-19 pandemic on food availability and prices was significant but varied by food type and regions in Ghana. Continuous monitoring and responses are critical to maintain food availability and affordability.

A study on the price variability of branded medicines and Jan aushadi versions of selected commonly prescribed psychiatric medications in India using a cost-comparative approach and a passive evaluation of the Jan aushadhi scheme in India.

The cost of medications poses a significant financial burden on patients. It limits access and adherence to treatment. Psychiatric disease burden is rising and it needs treatment for long durations. The high cost of branded medicines and lack of access to medicines at affordable prices can limit adherence. A cost comparison study was done to investigate the price difference between branded and Jan aushadhi versions of 20 selected psychiatric drugs was done at the Department of Community Medicine of a Government medical college in Southern India. The average (mean) price of branded medicines of each drug was calculated with minimum, and maximum using online data, and comparison was done by calculating the percentage price difference between branded and Jan aushadhi medicines. The overall percentage price difference between branded and Jan aushadhi medicines was calculated. The overall percentage price difference between the mean price of branded medicine and Jan aushadhi medicine was + 252% for antipsychotics, indicating that the mean branded price was 252% (2.52 times) Jan aushadhi price. Similarly, the overall percentage price difference between the mean branded price and Jan aushadhi price among antidepressants was +277.54%, and the overall percentage price difference between mean branded price and Jan aushadhi was +227.73% for anticonvulsants. Similarly, price differences of maximum and minimum branded prices and Jan aushadhi were high. The study was able to estimate variation in the price of branded drugs and compare the price of branded medicines with Jan aushadhi by estimating price differences. The results of the study are useful in further reference regarding the subject for public, policy makers and healthcare providers. It gives valuable evidence into medication costs in India.

Does better accessibility always mean higher house prices?

Numerous studies have explored the correlations between house prices and spatial accessibility, but few have delved into the nonlinearities between both. This study uses Cardiff (UK) as a case study and applies interpretable machine learning algorithms, eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) and SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP), to estimate the nonlinear effects of geometric locational accessibility and street network accessibility on house prices. The findings suggest (1) proximity to the CBD, typically the major determinant of land values in hedonic house price models, does not continuously yield higher prices; (2) street closeness centrality, a network-modelling approach to measuring accessibility, exhibits a more generalised pattern with house prices compared proximity to the CBD regardless of analytical spatial scales. The findings challenge the generalizability of Alonso’s bid-rent theory in accurately portraying the relationship between accessibility and house prices in specific urban contexts, highlighting the importance of re-evaluating classical urban theories in different city contexts using novel measures and modelling techniques.

CONDITIONING OF LEASING OF STATE TREASURY’S AGRICULTURAL LAND IN THE WARMIA-MAZURY REGION

The aim of this research was to identify factors conditioning usage of leasing as a form of management of agricultural lands in the region of Warmia and Mazury. It was based on survey research conducted among 134 agricultural land leaseholders and buyers from the Warmia-Mazury region. By the end of 2020, 824.7 thousand ha of agricultural land was repossessed by the Treasury Agricultural Property Stock in the Warmia-Mazury Voivodship, out of which 83.6% was leased. The main source of financing of the farms expansion was own resources, bank credit, and subsidies and dotation from the EU. At the same time, the development and functioning of farms were mostly influenced by resource factors (area, quality of the farm land, machinery park), production profitability which depends on prices of means of production, subsidies from EU funds, farm land prices, agricultural production cost, demand for agricultural produce and their unstable purchase prices. Different perception of factors conditioning the development and functioning of farms was due to the size of a farm. As the results of the analysis indicate, the development and functioning of farms with area above 100 ha were more dependent of owned machinery park, qualifications of labour on the local market, costs of credit taken to purchase agricultural land, as well as procedures to obtain subsidies from EU funds.

Monitoring Food Affordability: Reliability and Validity of an Online Nutritious Food Basket.

Purpose: This study aimed to assess the reliability and validity of an online approach to monitoring food affordability in Ontario using the updated Ontario Nutritious Food Basket (ONFB).Methods: The ONFB was priced online in 12 large multi-chain grocery stores to test intra-/inter-rater reliability using percent agreement and intra-class correlations (ICCs). Then, the ONFB was priced in-store and online in 28 stores to estimate food price differences using paired t-tests and Pearson's correlation for all (n =1708) and matched items (same product/brand and purchase unit) (n = 1134).Results: Intra-/inter-rater agreement was high (95.4%/81.6%; ICC = 0.972, F = 69.9, p < 0.001). On average, in-store prices were less than $0.02 lower than online prices. There were no significant differences between mean in-store and online prices for all items (t = 0.504 p = 0.614). The mean price was almost perfectly correlated between in-store and online (fully matched: R = 0.993 p < 0.001; all items: R = 0.967 p < 0.001). Online monthly ONFB estimates for a family of four were strongly correlated (R = 0.937 p < 0.001) with estimates calculated using in-store data.Conclusions: Online pricing is a reliable and valid approach to food costing in Ontario that contributes to modernizing the monitoring of food affordability in Canada and abroad.

Survey of the Prices of Topical Compounded Medications for Alopecia in the Tri-State Area.

Currently, there is only one topical medication approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for alopecia, minoxidil 2.5% and 5%. With limited options, dermatologists often turn to compounding pharmacies for customized topical alopecia medications. (1) to investigate the pricing and availabilities of compounded topical alopecia medications and (2) to investigate the delivery/mail options available. 103 dermatological compounding pharmacies in the tri-state area were contacted. Data were collected on the prices of 11 different compounded formulations for alopecia, the highest concentration of minoxidil available, compounding accreditation status, and delivery. The majority (76.7% [79/103]) of pharmacies surveyed were responsive. Mean prices for 60 g or mL of medication were $70.44 for minoxidil 5%, $86.95 for minoxidil 5%/finasteride 0.5%, $159.13 for minoxidil 5%/bimatoprost 0.03%, $141.91 for minoxidil 5%/latanoprost 0.02%, $75.31 for finasteride 0.5%, $204.41 for tacrolimus 0.3%, $220.11 for tacrolimus 0.3%/minoxidil 5%/clobetasol 0.05%, $71.44 for cetirizine 1%, $74.93 for metformin 10%, $4,273.20 for tofacitinib 2%, and $1,840.42 for ruxolitinib 2%.&nbsp;Nearly all (93.5% [72/77]) of the pharmacies reported being able to compound minoxidil higher than the commercially available 5%, while 67.6% (50/74) were able to customize minoxidil to be made with &lt;10% alcohol.&nbsp;Just over half (56.4% [44/78]) of the pharmacies were able to deliver to all tri-state areas. The mean delivery fee of pharmacies was $5.93 (n=77). Almost all of the pharmacies (98.7% [76/77]) claimed to be able to process and deliver medications within a week. If pharmacies were not located in the local vicinity, 44.6% (29/65) used a mailing service. This survey serves to expand clinicians' and patients' knowledge of the options and prices of topical compounded medications for alopecia. J Drugs Dermatol. 2024;23(3):&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;doi:10.36849/JDD.7697.

Do blockchain capabilities help overcome supply and operational risks: Insights from firm market returns during COVID-19

Uncertainty and risk have become increasingly prominent issues in firm operating environments. Addressing uncertainties and risks brought by the historically disruptive COVID-19 pandemic crisis requires organizations to establish reliable, visible, and traceable information processing and sharing capabilities. Blockchain is a disruptive technology that can build capabilities to support operational resilience where uncertainty may manifest as risk or opportunity. Using an event study, we examine the COVID-19 pandemic relationship to stock returns for 217 blockchain-related firms—those that develop or apply blockchain technology—over five major pandemic life cycle periods. Our results indicate firms with blockchain capabilities have less mean negative stock price reaction—on average, a reduced 8.24 % shareholder value loss across crisis stages. Different blockchain application fields exhibit varied shareholder value effects—in general, production blockchain applications can help firms reduce more negative impact while financial blockchain applications show no significant mitigation effects. We further demonstrate how blockchain operational characteristics affect stock returns. Overall, blockchain technology provides effective risk buffer capabilities and can help manage shifting institutional fields—which the market views as building resilient capabilities resulting in competitive advantage to overcome known and unknown uncertainties and risks.

Industry price guarantees for publicly funded medicines: learning from Project NextGen for pandemics and beyond.

The affordability of publicly funded medicines has been a longstanding concern. In 2023, the Biden administration took several steps on this front, including incorporation of a price constraint in an agreement between the US Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA) and Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Inc. to develop a new COVID-19 monoclonal antibody. The agreement included a 'Most Favored Nation' (MFN) clause in which Regeneron agreed that the US commercial list price of certain products developed using BARDA funding would not exceed their retail price in comparable global markets. The Administration for Strategic Preparedness and Response (ASPR) included similar language in subsequent agreements, with a promise that this would become a new standard. Even beyond the preparedness context, government funders and purchasers might consider incorporating similar clauses in future contracts, especially given that the Regeneron agreement and its progeny have been praised as 'groundbreaking.' Yet a closer look reveals cause for skepticism. Regeneron's MFN clause includes several loopholes related to covered purchasers and reference countries, prices, and conditions. We describe agreement terms that can make the difference between legally meaningful price constraints and mere window dressing. Our critical analysis offers important lessons for future efforts to improve the affordability of medical technology developed with public funds.

Food budget ratio as an equitable metric for food affordability and insecurity: a population-based cohort study of 121 remote Indigenous communities in Canada

BackgroundFood insecurity is a public health issue for many regions globally, and especially Indigenous communities. We propose food budget ratio (FBR)—the ratio of food spending to after-tax income—as an affordability metric that better aligns with health equity over traditional price-focused metrics. Existing census and inflation monitoring programs render FBR an accessible tool for future affordability research.MethodsPublic census and food pricing datasets from 2011 to 2021 were analyzed to evaluate food affordability for a cohort of 121 remote Indigenous communities in Canada (n = 80,354 persons as of March 2021). Trends in population-weighted versus community-weighted averages, inflation-adjusted mean price of the Revised Northern Food Basket (RNFB), and distributions of FBR, per-capita price of food, and per-capita after-tax income were calculated and compared to Canada at large.ResultsPopulation-weighted versus community-weighted mean price of the RNFB differed by < 5% for most points in time, peaking at 17%. Mean raw price of the RNFB was relatively stable, while mean inflation-adjusted price of the RNFB decreased 19%. Mean and standard deviation in FBR trended downwards from (0.40; 0.21) in 2011 to (0.25; 0.10) in 2021, while the mean for Canada held stable at 0.10 ± 0.01. Mean and standard deviation in inflation-adjusted per-capita price of food fell from ($5,621; $493) to ($4,510; $243), while the Canada-wide mean rose from $2,189 to $2,567; values for per-capita after-tax income increased from ($17,384; $7,816) to ($21,661; $9,707), while the Canada-wide mean remained between $24,443 and $26,006. Current Nutrition North Canada (NNC) subsidy rates correlate closely with distance to nearest transportation hub (σXY = 0.68 to 0.70) whereas food pricing, after-tax income, and FBR correlate poorly with distance (σXY = -0.22 to 0.03).ConclusionsThe FBR approach yields greater insights on food affordability compared to price-based results, while using readily available public datasets. Whereas 19% reductions in RNFB per-capita food price were observed, FBR decreased 63% yet remained 2.5 times the Canada-wide FBR. The reduction in FBR was driven both by the reduced price of food and a 25% increase in after-tax income. It is recommended that NNC consider FBR for performance measurement and setting subsidy rates.

Improving Cointegration-Based Pairs Trading Strategy with Asymptotic Analyses and Convergence Rate Filters

AbstractA pairs trading strategy (PTS) constructs a mean-reverting portfolio whose logarithmic value moves back and forth around a mean price level. It makes profits by longing (or shorting) the portfolio when it is underpriced (overpriced) and closing the portfolio when its value converges to the mean price level. The cointegration-based PTS literature uses the historical sample mean and variance to establish their open/close thresholds, which results in bias thresholds and less converged trades. We derive the asymptotic mean around which the portfolio value oscillates. Revised open/close thresholds determined by our asymptotic mean and standard derivations significantly improve PTS performance. The derivations of asymptotic means can be extended to construct a convergence rate filter mechanism to remove stock pairs that are unlikely to be profitable from trading to further reduce trading risks. Moreover, the PTS literature oversimplifies the joint problem of examining a stock pair’s cointegration property and selecting the fittest vector error correction model (VECM). We propose a two-step model selection procedure to determine the cointegration rank and the fittest VECM via the trace and likelihood ratio tests. We also derive an approximate simple integral trading volume ratio to meet no-odd-lot trading constraints. Experiments from Yuanta/P-shares Taiwan Top 50 Exchange Traded Fund and Yuanta/P-shares Taiwan Mid-Cap 100 Exchange Traded Fund constituent stock tick-by-tick backtesting during 2015–2018 show remarkable improvements by adopting our approaches.

PENGARUH E-SERVICE QUALITY, HARGA, KEPERCAYAAN DAN KUALITAS INFORMASI TERHADAP KEPUTUSAN PEMBELIAN TIKET KERETA API MELALUI APLIKASI KAI ACCESS DI KABUPATEN JEMBER

This study aims to examine the effect of E-Service Quality, Price, Trust and Information Quality on the Decision to Purchase Train Tickets Through the KAI Access Application in Jember Regency. Research data obtained from distributing questionnaires with purposive sampling technique. This type of quantitative research. The samples used were ITS Mandala students, University of Jember, and Jember State Polytechnic of 111 respondents. The results of the study show that E-Service Quality partially influences the decision to purchase train tickets through KAI Access. Prices partially affect the decision to purchase train tickets through KAI Access. Trust partially influences the decision to purchase train tickets through KAI Access. The quality of information partially influences the decision to purchase train tickets through KAI Access. While the results of the calculation of simultaneous test statistics, it was concluded that E-Service Quality, Price, Trust and Information Quality simultaneously had a positive and significant effect on Purchase Decision. and the coefficient of determination (60.8%). This means (E-Service Quality, Price, Trust and Quality of Information) is able to explain the variation of the Purchase Decision of 60.8%. The remaining 39.2% is explained by other variables outside the research.