Mean Error Scores Research Articles

The relation between abuse and socio-demographic factors, intelligence and brain function in sheltered runaway adolescents

This study was intended to investigate socio-demographic characteristics, intelligence, brain function and abuse experience in sheltered runaway adolescents and also to exam the relation between them. And the ultimate purpose is to offer basic data which are needed in establishing comprehensive protection policy in sheltered runaway adolescents. 128 adolescents who stayed in the runaway shelters were investigated. Basic questionnarre about socio-demographic characteristic, developmental history, family environment, and abuse experience were asked to complete by themselves and Korean Wechsler Adult Intelligence SCaleIK-WAIS), Bender-Geslalt Test(BGT) were carried by a psychologist. The most common age of the subjects was 15 years old. The first runaway episode was most common in the middle school period. and mostly their runaway was repeated sexual abuse history was more frequent in female，and emotional abuse was more frequent in male. Physical abuse was more frequent in 12-15 years old group and sexual abuse was more frequent in 16-21years old group. Emotional abuse was most frequent in whom the first runaway episode occurred in elementary school period. Physical abuse was most frequent in whom repeated runaway. ln intelligence test, 22% of subjects was mentally retarded. Emotional abuse was significantly related with decrease of verbal intelligence scores, and sexual abuse was significantly related with decrease of performance intelligence scores. ln BGT, 39.4% of subjects manifested brain dysfunction signs and mean error score significantly higher in adolescents with history of emotional abuse, sexual abuse and neglect. Abuse experience were significantly more frequent in runaway adolescents than in general adolescents. And this result caused various harmful effect in cognitive brain function. To prevent this and to provide prolection policy for runaway adolescents, more active investigation about the abuse history and early family intervention are needed.

Comparing measures of model selection for penalized splines in Cox models

This article presents an application and a simulation study of model fit criteria for selecting the optimal degree of smoothness for penalized splines in Cox models. The criteria considered were the Akaike information criterion, the corrected AIC, two formulations of the Bayesian information criterion, and a generalized cross-validation method. The estimated curves selected by the five methods were compared to each other in a study of rectal cancer mortality in autoworkers. In the stimulation study, we estimated the fit of the penalized spline models in six exposure–response scenarios, using the five model fit criteria. The methods were compared on the basis of a mean squared error score and the power and size of hypothesis tests for any effect and for detecting nonlinearity. All comparisons were made across a range in the total sample size and number of cases.

Turkish Children's Bender-Gestalt Test Performance: A Pilot Study and Preliminary Norms

The present study was undertaken to provide preliminary data for norms on the Bender-Gestalt Test for 253 children ages 5 yr., 5 mo. to 11 yr., 10 mo. in Turkey. The Koppitz Developmental Scoring System gave mean error scores of 4.2 ( SD = 3.3) for girls and 3.6 ( SD = 3.0) for boys. The mean error scores obtained by all age groups are presented and compared with other cross-cultural data. These scores decreased across age groups, supporting Bender's maturational hypothesis of the test. The present sample performed at a higher developmental level than the Koppitz normative sample for the 5- and 6-year age groups, while means for other age groups were similar to the original U.S. norms. That this pattern is supported in other cross-cultural studies is discussed as well as the importance of developing local norms for visual spatial tests.

The Impact of Age on Predicting Physical Activity Intensity via Accelerometry

PURPOSE: To explore the utility of the Actigraph accelerometer (ACC) in predicting physical activity intensity (PAI) for absolute (METs) and relative (%VO2 max) intensity across age groups. METHODS: Sixty individuals between the ages of 20–29 and 60–69 yrs (n=30 per group) completed a submaximal treadmill test with oxygen consumption and ACC data collected throughout the test. Linear regression analyses were performed to predict absolute and relative PAI from ACC counts for both groups. Utilizing a jack knife approach, the younger and older age group formulas were cross validated within their respective group. The younger age group formula was validated between groups to explore age group differences. Mean error scores were calculated for the within and between validation and tested via dependent t-tests. RESULTS: Mean error scores (± SEM) for the absolute PAI predictions within groups ranged from −0.15 ± 0.12 METs to 0.09 ± 0.01 METs (younger group, p=0.20-0.73) and from −0.00 ± 0.12 METs to 0.01 ± 0.28 METs (older group, p=0.96-0.98). Mean error scores for the relative PAI predictions within groups ranged from −1.54 ± 2.64 ml·kg·min-1 to 2.40 ± 1.67 ml·kg·min-1 (younger group, p=0.16-0.84), and from −6.92 ± 2.34 ml·kg·min-1 to 1.06 ± 2.35 ml·kg·min-1 (older group, p=0.20-0.66, with a significant difference from zero at the highest PAI, p=0.006). Mean error scores for the absolute PAI younger formula applied to the older group ranged from −0.18 ± 0.09 METs to 0.41 ± 0.23 METs (p=0.06-0.40). Mean error scores calculated for the relative PAI younger formula applied to the older group ranged from −14.87 ± 2.28 ml·kg·min-1 to −21.7 ± 2.28 ml·kg·min-1 and were all significantly different from zero (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The younger absolute regression formula was valid in assessing PAI in younger and older adults. In contrast, the younger relative formula was valid for estimating PAI for the younger group, but systematically misclassified PAI for the older group. Valid estimations of PAI can be obtained from applying absolute ACC regression formulas across age groups, but invalid results materialize when relative PAI ACC predictions are applied across age groups. Supported by UWM College of Health Sciences Graduate Student Research Grant

TURKISH CHILDREN'S BENDER-GESTALT TEST PERFORMANCE: A PILOT STUDY AND PRELIMINARY NORMS

The present study was undertaken to provide preliminary data for norms on the Bender-Gestalt Test for 253 children ages 5 yr., 5 mo. to 11 yr., 10 mo. in Turkey. The Koppitz Developmental Scoring System gave mean error scores of 4.2 (SD = 3.3) for girls and 3.6 (SD = 3.0) for boys. The mean error scores obtained by all age groups are presented and compared with other cross-cultural data. These scores decreased across age groups, supporting Bender's maturational hypothesis of the test. The present sample performed at a higher developmental level than the Koppitz normative sample for the 5- and 6-year age groups, while means for other age groups were similar to the original U.S. norms. That this pattern is supported in other cross-cultural studies is discussed as well as the importance of developing local norms for visual spatial tests.

Effect of petroleum derivatives and solvents on colour perception

Background: Occupational exposure to various neurotoxic chemicals has been shownto be associated with colour vision impairment. It seems that this can occur at low exposure levels, sometimes well below the recommended occupational threshold limitsThis study was undertaken to determine the effect of exposure to petroleum derivatives (polyethylene, polystyrene) and solvents (perchloroethylene) on colour perception.Methods: Colour vision was assessed using the Ishihara plates, the D‐15 test and the Farnsworth Munsell 100 Hue test. Two factories using petroleum derivatives and threedry cleaning premises were chosen at random. A total of 93 apparently healthy employeeswere recruited from the five workplaces. Two age‐matched control groups comprising56 people, who were support staff of the university with no exposure to petroleum, solvents or their derivatives, were also recruited.Results: All subjects passed the Ishihara test, showing that none had a congenital redgreendefect. Some of the exposed employees failed the D‐ 15 and had abnormally high FM 100 Hue scores. All control subjects passed all the colour vision tests. The D‐ 15 test showed that 28 per cent (26 of 93) of exposed employees had a colour vision defect whereas the FM 100 Hue test found that 63 per cent (59 of 93) had a colour vision defect. Most defects were of the blue‐yellow type (22.6 per cent) when using the D‐15 test. However, with the FM 100 Hue test, most defects were of the nonpolar type with no specific axis (50.5 per cent). Mean total error scores calculated from the FMlOO Hue test for exposed employees were statistically significantly higher than those of the control subjects.Conclusion: Employees directly exposed to petroleum derivatives and solvents have a higher risk of acquiring colour vision defects compared to subjects who are not.

Field evaluation of energy expenditure in women using Tritrac accelerometers.

To investigate the use of Tritrac accelerometers to measure energy expenditure (EE) of various activities for women in the field setting, as compared with portable indirect calorimetry. Twenty women (age 20-29) performed a choreographed routine of six activities (walking, jogging, stair climbing, walking on an incline, stationary cycling, and arm ergometry) while wearing a Tritrac-R3D accelerometer (Hemokinetics Inc., Madison WI) and the Cosmed K4b(2) portable metabolic cart (Cosmed, Rome, Italy). Comparing the mean error scores (K4b(2) - Tritrac), the Tritrac overestimated the EE (kcal x min(-1)) of walking (-1.45) and jogging (-1.75), whereas underestimating the EE of stair climbing (2.76), stationary cycling (2.75), and arm ergometry (1.20). Walking on an incline showed the lowest mean error score (-0.11). Intraclass correlations were moderate for walking (r = 0.568, < 0.05), jogging (r = 0.666, < 0.05), and stairs (r = 0.503, < 0.05) but for the other activities ranged from r = 0.290 ( > 0.05) to r = 0.480 ( < 0.05). The raw data from the Tritrac was applied to a previously developed nonlinear model to adjust the Tritrac scores to the standard of whole-room indirect calorimetry. This resulted in statistically significant improvements in the agreement between the adjusted Tritrac value and the K4b for walking, jogging, and walking on an incline ( < 0.05). When compared with portable indirect calorimetry, the Tritrac overestimates the EE of walking and jogging, whereas underestimating that of stair climbing, stationary cycling, and arm ergometry. This limits the use of such a technique to measure EE in the field. The main issues appear to be the type and intensity of the activity and the need for movement in order for the Tritrac to register EE. Activity specific linear regression equations are proposed as a tool to improve the measurement of EE using the Tritrac in the field.

Color vision defects in patients with arterial hypertension

In view of the generally impaired vascular condition in patients with arterial hypertension, we were interested in their colour perception. Patients (n = 35, f:m = 14:21, mean age 52 +/- 11 years) with arterial hypertension without damage in end-organs and normal subjects (n = 62, :m = 28:34, mean age 49 +/- 9 years) as a control group were included in this study. Exclusion criteria were other systemic or ophthalmological diseases. In addition to the ophthalmological examinations (visual acuity, refraction, intraocular pressure, slit lamp and fundus examination) the colour vision was tested by the colour arrangement test Roth 28-hue (E) desaturated under standard conditions: The background used was black cardboard, illuminated by two Osram fluorescent lamps (L36 W/12LDL Daylight) providing 2000 lux at the test table. The ophthalmological examinations in the patients and in the control group were normal. The patients with arterial hypertension had a significantly higher mean error score (median +/- mean absolute deviation 150 +/- 56, Mann-Witney U-test: p < 0.001) in the colour arrangement test than the control group (median +/- mean absolute deviation 72 +/- 53.4). A particular colour axis (blue-yellow or red-green) was not found. Although the ophthalmological examinations were normal we found a disturbed colour vision in patients with arterial hypertension. This has to be taken into account in colour vision testing to avoid diagnostic interferences between specifically ocular diseases (e.g. glaucoma) and arterial hypertension.

Positiver Einfluss von Farberfahrung auf das Ergebnis von Farbsinnprüfungen mit dem Farbpigmentprobentest Roth 28-hue (E) desaturiert - Klinische Studie an 44 Probanden

The color arrangement test can be applied for early diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy, even small confusion of colors influence clinical diagnosis. It is therefore necessary to be aware of influential factors. Forty-four patients with color-experience (VW-Werk Wolfsburg) were included and devided in two groups: group 1: non-smokers without ophthalmological and systemic diseases (n = 27, 42+/-9 years), group 2: smokers without ophthalmological and systemic diseases (n = 17; 43+/-8 years). The control group 3 (n = 30; 42+/-4 years) included non-smokers and the control group 4 (n = 10; 42+/-8 years) smokers, both groups without color-experience, ophthalmological and systemic diseases. Besides the ophthalmological examinations (visual acuity, refraction, intraocular pressure, slit lamp and fundus examination) the color-vision was tested by the color-arrangement-test Roth 28-hue (E) desaturated monocularly under standard conditions: The background used was black cardboard, illuminated by two Osram fluorescent lamps (L36W/12LDL Daylight) providing 2000 lux at the test table. Ophthalmological examination in all subjects was without pathological findings. The mean error score in the non-smokers with color-experience (median+/-mean absolute deviation: 48+/-47) was lower than in the non-smokers without color experience (72+/-45; Mann-Withney-U-Test: p = 0.02). The mean error score in the smokers with color-experience (60+/-60) was lower than in the smokers without color-experience (156+/-65; p = 0.0014). No statistically significant difference was found between the measurements of the right and left eye (Wilcoxon-Test: group 1: p = 0.89; group 2: p = 0.9; group 3: p = 0.77; group 4: p = 0.87). Color experience improves the results in color-arrangement-tests like the Roth 28-hue (E) desaturated and should be considered in quantitative evaluation.

Validity of four motion sensors in measuring moderate intensity physical activity.

This study tested the validity of four motion sensors for measuring energy expenditure (EE) during moderate intensity physical activities in field and laboratory settings. We also evaluated the accuracy of the EE values for selected moderate activities listed in the 1993 Compendium of Physical Activities. A total of 81 participants (age 19-74 yr) completed selected tasks from six general categories: yardwork, housework, occupation, family care, conditioning, and recreation. Twelve individuals performed each of the 28 activities examined. During each activity, EE was measured using a portable metabolic measurement system. Participants also wore three accelerometers (Computer Science and Applications [CSA], Inc. model 7164; Caltrac; and Kenz Select 2) and the Yamax SW-701 electronic pedometer. For the CSA device, three previously developed regression equations were used to convert accelerometer scores to EE. The mean error scores (indirect calorimetry minus device) across all activities were: CSA1, 0.97 MET; CSA2, 0.47 MET, CSA3, 0.05 MET; Caltrac, 0.83 MET; Kenz, 0.96 MET; and Yamax, 1.12 MET. The correlation coefficients between indirect calorimetry and motion sensors ranged from r = 0.33 to r = 0.62. The energy cost for power mowing and sweeping/mopping was higher than that listed in the 1993 Compendium (P < 0.05), and the cost for several household and recreational activities was lower (P < 0.05). Motion sensors tended to overpredict EE during walking. However, they underpredicted the energy cost of many other activities because of an inability to detect arm movements and external work. These findings illustrate some of the limitations of using motion sensors to predict EE in field settings.

COLOR VISION DEFICITS AND LASER EYEWEAR PROTECTION FOR SOFT TISSUE LASER APPLICATIONS

Purpose Laser safety considerations require urologists to wear laser eye protection. Laser eye protection devices block transmittance of specific light wavelengths and may distort color perception. We tested whether urologists risk color confusion when wearing laser eye protection devices for laser soft tissue applications. Materials and Methods Subjects were tested with the Farnsworth-Munsell 100-Hue Test without (controls) and with laser eye protection devices for carbon dioxide, potassium titanyl phosphate (KTP), neodymium (Nd):YAG and holmium:YAG lasers. Color deficits were characterized by error scores, polar graphs, confusion angles, confusion index, scatter index and color axes. Laser eye protection device spectral transmittance was tested with spectrophotometry. Results Mean total error scores plus or minus standard deviation were 13 +/− 5 for controls, and 44 +/− 31 for carbon dioxide, 273 +/− 26 for KTP, 22 +/− 6 for Nd:YAG and 14 +/− 8 for holmium:YAG devices (p <0.001). The KTP laser eye protection polar graphs, and confusion and scatter indexes revealed moderate blue-yellow and red-green color confusion. Color axes indicated no significant deficits for controls, or carbon dioxide, Nd:YAG or holmium:YAG laser eye protection in any subject compared to blue-yellow color vision deficits in 8 of 8 tested with KTP laser eye protection (p <0.001). Spectrophotometry demonstrated that light was blocked with laser eye protection devices for carbon dioxide less than 380, holmium:YAG greater than 850, Nd:YAG less than 350 and greater than 950, and KTP less than 550 and greater than 750 nm. Conclusions The laser eye protection device for KTP causes significant blue-yellow and red-green color confusion. Laser eye protection devices for carbon dioxide, holmium:YAG and Nd:YAG cause no significant color confusion compared to controls. The differences are explained by laser eye protection spectrophotometry characteristics and visual physiology.

Skewness and transformations of Farnsworth–Munsell 100-Hue Test scores

In the past, suggested transformations of Farnsworth–Munsell 100-Hue Test (FM 100-Hue) test scores distributions have been limited to a square root transformation. In this study, the choice of transformations of total error scores (TES) are considered by identifying a possible source of skewness. Several distributions of FM100-Hue Test TES were assessed for skewness (third moment). The error score (ES) distributions for the 85 individual caps in each of the populations were also analysed for skewness ( Figs. 3 and 4). There is no single transformation which will normalise all TES distributions. The single cap ES distributions with low mean ES (such as those achieved normals and, for some regions of the test, by anomalous trichromats and dichromats) are symmetrical because most subjects can organise the cap perfectly (and could do even better given smaller colour differences). The distributions of ESs where the mean ES is in the moderate range (such as those achieved by diabetics) are skewed because some ESs at the lower end of the range represent performance which could also be better than the test allows. ES distributions with a high mean (such as random distributions and some regions of the test by congenital dichromats) are symmetrical being unaffected by the limitations of the test. TES distributions of diabetics are asymmetrical and comprise skewed cap ES distributions. A suggestion for a transformation is made.

Harnessing language awareness in a communicative context: a group study of the efficacy of Metaphon

ABSTRACT Metaphon is a two‐phase therapy procedure for children with disordered phonology. It seeks to influence phonological production by targeting aspects of linguistic awareness within an interactive learning framework. An earlier investigation of this procedure, involving 13 children treated by a single therapist, showed a significant decrease in the occurrence of simplifying processes post‐therapy for most subjects (Howell &amp; Dean, 1994). The investigation reported in this paper sought to test the effectiveness of Metaphon therapy further by studying a larger number of children. In addition, the study was designed to determine the relative contribution to phonological change of the two phases of Metaphon therapy; Phase I which aims to harness awareness of phonological contrasts and Phase II which aims to enhance communicative competence. Fifty children aged between 3;6‐5;6 participated in the investigation. They were treated by 12 speech and language therapists. The criteria used for subject selection ensure that the children had received no previous speech therapy and that their communication difficulties were specific to the speech sound system. They were all monolingual speakers and came from a variety of social backgrounds. The subjects were assigned to four different experimental conditions: Group 1 — Phase I treatment only (six treatment sessions); Group 2 — both phases I and II treatment (10 treatment sessions); Groups 3 and 4 — no treatment (control groups, one for each of the two treatment conditions). (All the children in the control groups received therapy immediately following the experimental period.) A variety of cognitive and linguistic assessments were given to all subjects before and after their respective periods of therapy/no therapy. A comparison of mean error scores on a measure of phonological production before and after the period of therapy/no therapy showed a reduction in error occurrence for all four groups, with the greater change occurring in Group 2, the subjects receiving the complete Metaphon programme. Analysis of covariance revealed a significant interaction between treatment group (control/experimental) and inter‐test interval. The results suggest that Metaphon therapy does have a positive effect on phonological change, with both phases of Metaphon required for maximum effectiveness for most subjects. The implications for clinical practice from this investigation include the following. Firstly, that enhancing awareness of the phonological and communicative aspects of language appears to be an effective way of bringing about phonological change. Secondly, the finding that phonological change occurred in both the treated and non‐treated groups over a relatively short timespan suggests that the potential influence of maturation should be considered when appraising the effectiveness of any therapeutic programme used with this client group.

Characterization of high voltage spindles and spatial memory in young, mature and aged rats

EEG was recorded from rats of three age groups, and high voltage spindles (HVS) were measured during waking immobility. Total mean spindling times in 4- (young), 10- (mature) and 22- (aged) month-old rats were 0.3 ± 0.1, 20.4 ± 7.4 and 33.4 ± 14.9 s, respectively. Spatial memory was assessed in these rats using a discrimination version of the Morris water maze. Performance (as measured by number of choice errors) was compared with the extent of HVS activity by characterizing rats as “spindling” if the total average duration of HVS discharges exceeded 5 s, and “non-spindling” if these discharges averaged less than 5 s. Spindling and nonspindling rats had similar performance during training; however, on a 14-day retention trial, spindling rats had a significantly higher mean error score of 2.8 ± 0.5 compared with 1.2 ± 0.3 for nonspindling rats ( p = 0.011). These results show that spindling activity increases in mature and aged rats, and that HVS discharges may be an electrophysiological change that parallels the progression of brain dysfunction associated with memory impairment.

Impaired acquisition in a 14-unit T-maze following medial septal lesions in rats is correlated with lesion size and hippocampal acetylcholinesterase staining

Septohippocampal cholinergic system involvement in acquisition of an aversively motivated 14-unit T-maze was evaluated in 4-month-old male Fischer-344 rats. Each rat was assigned to one of two groups that received either a bilateral electrolytic lesion to the medial septal area (MSA) or a sham operation. One week after surgery, each rat began pretraining in one-way active avoidance (footshock = 0.8 mA) consisting of 10 trials per day on each of 3 consecutive days. Criterion for successful completion of pretraining was 8/10 avoidances on the third day. On the day following completion of pretraining, each rat received 10 trials in a shock-motivated 14-unit T-maze. The performance requirement was to move through each of five maze segments within 10 s to avoid footshock (0.8 mA). A second 10-trial session was provided 24 h later. Performance measures included errors, alternation errors, runtime, shock frequency, and duration. Following maze training, each rat was sacrificed, and formalin-fixed brains were frozen for histology, which included procedures for thionin Nissl and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) staining. MSA-lesioned rats were observed to be significantly impaired on all measures of maze performance compared to sham-operated controls. Densitometric analysis of hippocampal AChE staining revealed a 30% reduction in relative AChE staining of MSA-lesioned rats compared to sham-operated controls. Lesion size was observed to be highly positively correlated with maze errors. A negative correlation of mean error score with density of AChE staining was observed for MSA-lesioned rats, but not for sham-operated rats. These results are consistent with previous studies implicating the cholinergic system in the acquisition of this task and further support the use of this maze for the evaluation of age-related cholinergic dysfunction and cognitive deficits in rodent models.

Psychological Momentum and Skill Performance: A Laboratory Study

This study used a laboratory setting and a novel motor skill to investigate psychological momentum and its relationship to performance. Subjects were paired» placed in competition in a novel motor task, and given false feedback concerning the outcome of games. Positive or negative momentum conditions were imposed by manipulating their experiences of victory or defeat as the match progressed. The actual performance and error scores for each subject were recorded after each game. The results indicated that subjects in positive conditions felt they had a high frequency of positive psychological momentum and that subjects in negative conditions felt they had a high frequency of negative psychological momentum. However» comparing mean performance and error scores of subjects in the two momentum conditions over the entire contest; comparing them in the last two games of a set, winners versus losers; and examining the predictive power of set outcome on performance and error scores in the next two games of the following set failed to demonstrate a significant performance effect.

Expanded Koppitz scoring system of the bender gestalt visual-motor test for adolescents: A pilot study

The current research represented a pilot study to assess the use of the Bender Gestalt Visual-Motor Test with school-age adolescents over 11 years of age. Research regarding the accuracy of the hypothesis that visual-motor integration functioning is normally intact by age 11 was presented. In addition, initial data to extend the Koppitz scoring system of the Bender for ages 11 years, 6 months through 15 years, 11 months was proposed. Mean error scores from the pilot study suggested that visual-motor development is not maturationally complete by age 11 years, 11 months. Additional research focusing on extending the normative sample or developing a new scoring system for adolescents is suggested.

Compensatory tracking in humans with elevated carboxyhemoglobin

A total of seventy-four men divided into five groups performed a compensatory tracking task for 4 hr with group mean carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) levels of 0.9, 5.6, 6.1, 11.4 or 16.6%. In all but one group, COHb was formed in approximately 5 min by having the subject breathe a high concentration of carbon monoxide (CO) from a Douglas bag. An appropriate low level of CO in the exposure/test chamber maintained the elevated COHb for the 4-hr duration of the experiment. A slow COHb formation group, not exposed to CO during bag breathing, which was only exposed to low-level CO in the exposure/testing chamber, served as a positive control. Even though mean tracking error scores increased in a nearly monotone manner as a function of COHb, the effects were not statistically significant. Even at the highest dose, the increase in tracking error was small. The increased mean error score due to rapid formation was virtually the same as that due to slow formation.

精神遅滞児のリズム運動における時間的正確性

In order to investigate a rhythmic movement ability of mentally retarded children, temporal accuracy of tapping task and stepping task were measured. On the tapping test, subjects were required to tap a key on the table exactly to sound signals being presented at a fixed time interval (900 msec). Being performed with their forefinger, this task was categorized as fine motor movement.In contrast, the stepping test was categorized as gross motor movement. Subjects were required to step on a given plate exactly to the sound signals. The tempo of the signals was the same as the one on the tapping test. The temporal accuracy of each test was assessed on the basis of timing error to the correct tempo from polygraphic records of 30 repetitive tappings or steppings.The mentally retarded subjects were 36 males(ages, 7-19; IQs, below 75). Their performances on both tests were compared with those of normal children (571 males, ages, 5-17). The metally retarded children at all age levels showed significantly greater error values than the comparative children. In order to compare the groups, the error values were transformed into T scores, the norm being constructed from the mean and SD of the nonretarded group of the same age and sex. On the tapping test, mean error score of retarded children was 60.9, being significantly greater than that of normal children (50.0). On the stepping test, the retarded children also showed a significantly greater mean error score (75.1) than the nonretarded (50.0). Consequently, the ratio of the tapping to the stepping test scores for the retarded group was 1.23. The results suggested that the retarded children lagged behind on the gross motor movement. Such tendency was observed in all age groups and was conspicuous in younger groups. The results were disscussed in terms of abilities of time perception, effector anticipation and effector efficiency.

Error pattern and item order on Halstead's Speech Sounds Perception Test.

Examined the possibility that the previously reported pattern of errors on the Speech Sounds Perception Test could be explained on the basis of learning (N = 30). This possibility was examined by altering the order of presentation of subtests so that the series with the highest mean error scores in the previous study were moved to the positions in which fewest errors had been observed previously. It was found that in spite of the alteration of order of presentation, the subtests that had the greatest number of errors in the previous study again had the largest mean errors. Conversely, the subtests with the lowest mean errors previously again had the lowest mean errors. It was concluded that order of administration did not influence the number of errors on each subtest and that therefore the observed pattern could not be explained on the basis of learning. Further data were presented that suggested a relationship between the mean number of errors on each subtest and the number of items in each subtest with correct choices that were phonetically similar to real words.