Meadow Pipit Research Articles

Do birds behave in order to avoid disclosing their nest site?

Capsule Three similarly sized passerine species with various breeding strategies behaved differently in the presence of models of mammalian and avian predators. Aims We tested whether solitary breeders behave in the presence of a predator in order to avoid disclosing their nest site in: hole-nesting Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca, shrub-nesting Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla and ground-nesting Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis. Methods The behaviour of parents in response to two types of predator model (visually oriented Corvid birds and olfactory oriented Mustelid mammals) placed sequentially at 40, 5 and 1 m distance from the nest was recorded from a shelter. Results The hypothesis was supported in open-nesting species (Meadow Pipit and Blackcap), as parents did not approach the nest in the presence of a predator. In the hole-nesting Pied Flycatcher the parents disclosed the nest site in most cases (by entering the nest). The intensity of alarm calling increased with decreasing distance of a predator from the nest in all species except Meadow Pipit in the presence of Raven Corvus corax models. The intensity of attacking changed only in Meadow Pipit with decreasing distance of Stoat Mustela erminea from the nest. Conclusion The results showed that anti-predator behaviour was species-specific, depending on type of predator, habitat and nest inaccessibility.

Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus foraging activity in relation to habitat and prey

Capsule In west Scotland, the birds foraged in accordance with the distribution of prey and vegetation associated with early-growth conifer forests. Aims To investigate foraging Hen Harrier activity in relation to vegetation cover and structure and the abundance of potential prey. Methods Forty 1 × 1-km sample observation areas were monitored at four sites in west Scotland. Results Foraging time in the sample squares was dependent on the proximity of harrier nests. Harriers preferred areas with relatively high densities of Field Voles Microtus agrestis and Meadow Pipits Anthus pratensis, associated with tall ground vegetation and shrub layers. They also preferred areas planted with trees but preference declined with increasing tree foliage 2–5 m tall and bare ground. Conclusion Conifer forests can provide favourable conditions for foraging harriers during the early growth stages. Further work is required to determine the value of other types of woodland.

Differences in the nestling begging calls of hosts and host-races of the common cuckoo, Cuculus canorus

We compared nestling begging calls of four hosts (reed warbler, Acrocephalus scirpaceus; great reed warbler, A. arundinaceus; dunnock, Prunella modularis; and meadow pipit, Anthus pratensis) and the respective host-races of the common cuckoo. Note structure varied between host species, but not between cuckoo host-races, so cuckoos did not vary their call note structure to match that of their hosts' chicks. Call rate increased with age, but there were marked differences between both host species and cuckoo host-races. Dunnock-cuckoos called more rapidly than reed warbler-cuckoos despite growing at the same rate. We suggest this difference reflects how cuckoos tune into the way these host species respond to begging signals from their own young, because dunnock chicks called much more rapidly than reed warbler chicks. Great reed warbler-cuckoos called at a lower rate than reed warbler-cuckoos when young, but at a greater rate when older than 8 days. This could also result from the cuckoo chicks tuning into differences in the way these hosts respond to begging signals. However, great reed warbler-cuckoos grew at a faster rate than the other cuckoo host-races, so they may also call faster to demand higher provisioning rates from this larger host. To test these hypotheses critically, data are needed on how the different host species integrate visual and vocal begging signals from their own broods. We discuss how differences in cuckoo begging might develop, given that cuckoo host-races are restricted to female cuckoo lineages. Copyright 2003 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Hybridization and apparent hybridization between meadow pipit (Anthus pratensis) and water pipit (A. spinoletta).

Occasionally, even a single breeding event may provide significant biological information, of which the present report of a pairing between a female meadow pipit (Anthus pratensis) and a male water pipit (A. spinoletta) may be a good example. Events of mixed-species pairing appear to be relatively common in birds (ARNOLD 1997). However, only rarely has researchers investigated whether such pairings actually results in the production of hybrid offspring. In a study of hybridization between collared flycatchers (Ficedula albicollis) and pied flycatchers (F. hypoleuca), VEEN et al. (2001) showed that females involved in mixed-species pairs often have extra-pair copulations (EPCs) with conspecific males, and that these extra-pair males sire a significant proportion of the nestlings. Accordingly, in these species the rate of actual hybridization is much lower than the frequency of heterospecific pairs would seem to imply. Here we report, to our knowledge, the first incidence of mixed pairing between a meadow pipit and a water pipit. Applying sequence analysis of two autosomal, nuclear introns, we show that only one of the offspring of the heterospecific mating event has a hybrid genotype. The other two offspring have genotypes similar to their mother, suggesting that they are sired by a male conspecific with the female. This result provides further evidence that heterospecific pairing and hybridization are not equivalent phenomena. We suggest that molecular methods should preferentially be used in cases of suspected hybridization. If EPCbehaviour were particularly common in such cases, as would seem likely, rates of hybridization and possibly also male hybrid fitness would tend to be over-estimated in observational studies. The meadow pipit and the water pipit are small monogamous passerines that build their nests on the ground in open habitats, mainly in Central Europe alpine ecosystems. Songs of the two species are rather similar, but the water pipit sings louder with more musical and tinkling notes. There are apparent differences in plumage characters between the two species. The meadow pipit is olive-brown and streaked above, grey-white below and spotted and streaked on chest and flanks. The water pipit has slightly streaked greyish-brown upper parts and dull white under parts with pale buff-pink wash from throat to mid-belly. The first author has studied pipit populations on alpine meadows 1350–1491 m above sea level in the Jeseniky Mountains (Czech Republic, 50°04 N, 17°14 E) since 1986. In total, 84 meadow pipit pairs were caught during 1996–2001. The stated event is the first incidence of a mixed species pairing during the study period.

Field Vole Microtus agrestis abundance and Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus diet and breeding in Scotland

In many parts of the global range, voles form an important part of the diet of Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus, and breeding numbers are correlated with the abundance of these small mammals. In Scotland, however, little information is available on harrier diet in the spring and our understanding of causes of variation in harrier breeding density is complicated by human interference. In this paper we explore the relationship between Field Vole Microtus agrestis abundance and harrier spring diet, density and productivity in southern Scotland. Over three years, voles occurred on average in 67% of pellets, and 79% in years of high and intermediate vole abundance. From 1992, the number of breeding harriers increased following protection from illegal persecution. After accounting for this trend, harrier numbers correlated strongly with vole abundance. Harrier clutch size was also correlated with vole abundance. Although fledging success tended to be greater in years of vole increase than in years of vole decline, fledging success was not significantly correlated with the relative abundance of voles, or with the abundance of Meadow Pipits or Red Grouse chicks.

Habitat associations of breeding Meadow Pipits Anthus pratensis in the British uplands

Habitat associations of Meadow Pipits breeding in British upland 1 km and 10 km squares were investigated using data from the British Trust for Ornithology's (BTO) Breeding Bird Survey (BBS, 1994–97), The New Atlas of Breeding Birds in Britain and Ireland 1988–1991 and habitat data from the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology's (ITE) Land Cover Survey (1994). Meadow Pipit density was highest in 200 m sections of BBS 1 km transects containing unenclosed grass moor, heather and bog, but there was no difference in Meadow Pipit density between these habitat types. Meadow Pipit density (number of individuals per 1 km square) increased with heather cover up to about 7.5 200 m sections (of ten per 1 km square) of heather, but fell thereafter. There was a positive association between Meadow Pipit density and the extent of grass moor cover. The ITE Land Cover data gave results that were consistent with the BBS habitat data at both the 1 km and 10 km square scale. There was a non-linear relationship between hill grass cover and Meadow Pipit abundance, which reached a maximum when hill grass covered between 40%and 60% of a square. Our results suggest that a mosaic of heather, bog and grassland may be the optimum habitat for Meadow Pipits. Recent changes in land management practices may have led to the disappearance or degradation of these mosaics in some areas. Meadow Pipits are widespread and easily counted. We suggest that this species might be a useful bioindicator of changes in heather and grassland ratios that result from land management practices such as grazing and rotational burning, though further research is required.

Do pipits use experimentally supplemented rich sources of calcium more often in an acidified area?

How birds respond to the recent phenomenon of calcium deficiency in acidified areas is still poorly known. This study, carried out in the Jeseníky Mountains (heavily polluted, acidified area in the Czech Republic), in alpine ecosystems of central Norway, and in the limestone part of the Malá Fatra Mountains (Slovak Republic), provides the first experimental evidence that birds select and bring supplemented calcium‐rich items to their nestlings more often in an acidified area. Meadow Pipits Anthus pratensis and Water Pipits A. spinoletta selected calcium‐rich items (mainly snail shells) from various materials placed near their nests and this selectivity did not differ between areas or species. Thinning of egg shells (8% at blunt pole, 5% at egg side) suggests that Meadow Pipits in the Jeseníky Mountains were negatively influenced by the low calcium availability, in spite of their ability to adjust foraging behaviour.

The effect of management for red grouse shooting on the population density of breeding birds on heather‐dominated moorland

Summary Breeding birds, vegetation and moorland management were surveyed in 320 1‐km squares on 122 estates in upland areas of eastern Scotland and northern England where red grouse shooting is a widespread land use. We assessed whether population densities of 11 species of breeding birds differed between heather‐dominated moorland managed for red grouse shooting and other moorland with similar vegetation. We classified estates that had a full‐time equivalent moorland gamekeeper as grouse moors. The mean density of red grouse shot per year was four times higher and the mean density of gamekeepers was three times higher on grouse moors than on other moors. Rotational burning of ground vegetation covered a 34% larger area on grouse moors than on other moors. Selection of heather‐dominated squares resulted in similar composition of vegetation on grouse moors and other moors (about 76% heath, 12% grass, 8% bog, 2% flush and < 1% bracken on both types). However, grouse moors tended to have less tall vegetation than other moors and differed significantly in some other characteristics of the vegetation, topography and soil type. Densities of breeding golden plover and lapwing were five times higher and those of red grouse and curlew twice as high on grouse moors as on other moors, while meadow pipit, skylark, whinchat and carrion/hooded crow were 1·5, 2·3, 3·9 and 3·1 times less abundant, respectively, on grouse moors. The differences in density between moorland types remained significant (P < 0·001) for golden plover and crow and approached significance (P < 0·10) for lapwing and meadow pipit after allowing for variation among regions. We used Poisson regression models to relate bird density to vegetation cover, topography, climate and soil type. After adjusting for significant effects of these habitat variables, significant differences in bird density between the two moorland types remained for six species, although their magnitude was reduced. Correlations of adjusted bird density with measures of different aspects of grouse moor management provided evidence of a possible positive influence of predator control (assessed using crow density) on red grouse, golden plover and lapwing. The control of crows by gamekeepers is the most probable cause of the low densities of crows on grouse moors. There was evidence of a positive effect of heather burning on the density of red grouse and golden plover and a negative effect on meadow pipit. Multiple Poisson regression indicated that predator control and heather burning had significant separate effects on red grouse density. Significant relationships between adjusted breeding bird densities and the abundance of raptors and ravens were few and predominantly positive. The results provide correlative evidence that moorland management benefits some breeding bird species and disbenefits others in ways that cannot readily be explained as effects of differences in vegetation type or topography. However, experimental manipulations of numbers of some predators and heather burning are required to test these findings.

Meadow pipits, red grouse and the habitat characteristics of managed grouse moors

Summary The abundance of meadow pipits appears to be a good indicator of the breeding density of hen harriers on moorland managed for red grouse in Scotland. High densities of hen harriers can limit grouse populations at low density and reduce shooting bags, with repercussions for grouse moor management and conservation. We therefore examined the habitat characteristics of managed grouse moors, asking whether changes in vegetation could alter the ratio of pipits, and thus harriers, to grouse. We examined grouse abundance and habitat on 69 sites of 1 km2 in upland Britain, of which pipit abundance was studied on 36. Similar data were collected on 73 sites of 25 ha within the Langholm estate in south‐west Scotland, in order to make a within‐estate and among‐moor comparison. The distribution of pipit abundance on the Langholm estate was similar to that seen in the extensive among‐moor study. Pipit and grouse abundance were related to habitat in similar ways in the two data sets. Pipits were the most frequent passerine, but their abundance was not related to grouse abundance. Pipit abundance declined with increasing muirburn and heather, but increased with grass cover. In a linear regression model Calluna, Sphagnum and muirburn cover accounted for 42% of the variation in pipit abundance across Britain. Grouse abundance was influenced by the regional location of the grouse moor and to a lesser extent by its altitude. There were more grouse on English moors with less patchy habitats. Bird species declined with increasing Calluna and Sphagnum cover and habitat patchiness. Bird species diversity increased from west to east and on moors with more muirburn. This study provides evidence that meadow pipits are influenced by habitat characteristics on moorland managed for grouse. This work also illustrates how habitat management may be able to mitigate human–wildlife conflicts: long‐term increases in heather cover and management of this habitat by muirburn on grouse moors may reduce pipit numbers and thus reduce the ratio of hen harriers to grouse. However, the effects of such vegetation change on other components of the upland bird assemblage requires further investigation.

Offspring age and nest defence: test of the feedback hypothesis in the meadow pipit

The feedback hypothesis has been proposed to explain variation in nest defence intensity in birds. In species in which the female builds the nest and incubates the eggs, this hypothesis predicts a higher level of nest defence initially for females, whereas males' responses should increase when they start feeding nestlings. We studied changes in nest defence by both sexes during the nestling period in meadow pipits, Anthus pratensis. We placed a stuffed stoat,Mustela erminea , 5m from a meadow pipit nest with nestlings aged either 2–4 or 7–12 days and recorded the nest defence behaviour of both parents for 10min. Males came closer to the predator and mobbed more intensely for older nestlings whereas females defended the nest at a high intensity from the beginning of the nestling period. This finding agrees with the predictions of the feedback hypothesis. We also discuss possible functions of alarm calls and number of mobbing birds during nest defence.

Distraction Displays in Meadow Pipit (Anthus pratensis) Females in Central and Northern Europe

AbstractDistraction displays to a human were studied in the Meadow Pipit (Anthus pratensis) females in Central (Jeseníky Mountains–Czech Republic; 50°N 17°E) and Northern European mountains (Tydal area–Central Norway; 63°N 12°E) between 1995 and 1998. Three risk‐dependent variables were scored and we found that flushing and settling distances of pipit females decreased with increasing intensity of display both in the Central and the Northern Europe locations. Parental risk taking did not markedly differ between studied populations, although, in particular, larger brood size and reduced opportunity to re‐nest should contribute to a higher intensity of nest defence in the Northern than in the Central European mountains. Moreover, the level of risk taken was not significantly dependent on the air temperature, age of brood and brood size in both study areas, when compared separately. These results do not support the findings of most previous studies on nest defence in birds. Possible causes of our contradictory results are discussed with respect to the reproductive value and the feedback hypotheses.

Estimation of calcium intake by Meadow Pipit nestlings in an acidified area

Calcium availability might limit reproductive output in birds either by effects on eggshell formation or on skeletal growth of nestlings. Quantitative data on calcium intake by nestlings of free‐living passerines are needed to test the second hypothesis. In an acidified area of the Jeseníky Mountains (Czech Republic), estimates were made of calcium requirements and intake in Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis nestlings during the nestling period. Analyses of nestling diet, determined by neck ligatures, showed that only snail shells were an important source of calcium. During the whole nestling period dry matter intake per nestling was 31.1 g, of which snail shells contributed 0.626 g. The total calcium necessary for successful development of each nestling was estimated as 139.8 mg. Arthropods in the diet provided only 16% of the calcium requirement. However, sufficient calcium was ensured by intake of snails (mainly Arianta arbustorum), despite their low abundance in the area.

Genetic evidence for female host-specific races of the common cuckoo.

The common cuckoo Cuculus canorus is divided into host-specific races (gentes). Females of each race lay a distinctive egg type that tends to match the host's eggs, for instance, brown and spotted for meadow pipit hosts or plain blue for redstart hosts. The puzzle is how these gentes remain distinct. Here, we provide genetic evidence that gentes are restricted to female lineages, with cross mating by males maintaining the common cuckoo genetically as one species. We show that there is differentiation between gentes in maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA, but not in microsatellite loci of nuclear DNA. This supports recent behavioural evidence that female, but not male, common cuckoos specialize on a particular host, and is consistent with the possibility that genes affecting cuckoo egg type are located on the female-specific W sex chromosome. Our results also support the ideas that common cuckoos often switched hosts during evolution, and that some gentes may have multiple, independent origins, due to colonization by separate ancestral lineages.

Bird assemblages of an Iberian cereal steppe

The cereal steppes of Castro Verde (Portugal) support many bird species of high conservation value on which agricultural practices can have significant impacts. The aim of this study was to describe the seasonal variations in bird assemblages using the agricultural landscape mosaic and to explore the potential ecological implications of changes in land use on bird populations. Bird densities and habitat variables were measured in four habitat types (cereal fields, fallow land, stubbles, and ploughed land) during 1997/1998, and detrended correspondence analysis used to summarise information on the structure of bird assemblages across habitats in the winter, breeding and post-breeding periods. Pluvialis apricaria L., Vanellus vanellus L., Alauda arvensis L. and Anthus pratensis L. were abundant during winter. During the breeding season, bird assemblages were quite distinct across land use types, with species typical of cereal fields (e.g. Miliaria calandra L.), fallow land (e.g. Melanocorypha calandra L.) and ploughed land (e.g. Anthus campestris L.). After the breeding season, the overlap in bird assemblages increased again, with M. calandra, M. calandra L. and Ciconia ciconia L. being common. Species used different habitats along the year, showing the importance of maintaining the traditional agricultural landscape for preserving the diversity of bird species. The potential impacts of several types of agricultural changes (e.g. agricultural intensification, agricultural abandonment and increase in stocking levels) on the bird populations were discussed on the basis of the results obtained. Any change in the current farming system will probably lead to a decrease in steppe bird diversity.

Numerical and functional responses in generalist predators: hen harriers and peregrines on Scottish grouse moors

Summary 1. The functional and numerical responses of two generalist raptors (hen harrier and peregrine) were studied on one moor for 6 years and on five other moors for 5 years. 2. Neither species showed numerical responses to grouse abundance. Harrier densities were highest in areas and years where their small prey (meadow pipits and small mammals) were most abundant. Peregrine densities were highest on southern study moors, probably in association with high abundance of racing pigeons. 3. For harriers preying on grouse chicks, the available data fitted a sigmoidal or type III functional response. Peregrines showed a type II response to adult grouse densities around eyries. 4. The proportion of grouse chicks taken by harriers was estimated to have been highest at densities of 67 chicks km–2 (equivalent to a mean of about 12 broods km–2). The proportion of adult grouse taken by peregrines appeared to be inversely density dependent, such that an increasing proportion of grouse was taken at grouse densities below 20 km–2. 5. In the absence of persecution, the impact of harriers on grouse populations is most likely to be greatest on moors where alternative prey and thus harriers are abundant. The question of whether harriers may dampen grouse population cycles at low grouse density is discussed.

Rapid decline of host defences in response to reduced cuckoo parasitism: behavioural flexibility of reed warblers in a changing world

On Wicken Fen and nearby watercourses eastern England, parasitism by cuckoos, Cuculus canorus, declined from 26 and 16 of reed warbler (Acrocephalus scirpaceus) nests in 1985 and 1986, respectively...

Partial Nest Predation in an Altricial Bird Selects for the Accelerated Development of Young

In response to disturbance young of altricial open-nesting birds may leave the nest several days before the usual age for nest leaving. In Meadow Pipits Anthus pratensis, about 60% of broods attacked in the last quarter of the nestling period survived predation attempts. The probability that some nestlings would escape from nest predators increased with nestling age. The growth rate and number of nestlings did not predict whether or not the brood would be attacked by a predator. However, the probability that the attack would result in destruction of the entire brood decreased with increasing growth rate. Other sources of mortality (e.g. starvation, scramble competition) also affected slowly growing broods. It is concluded that the selection for accelerated nestling growth and earlier functional maturity acts via elimination of poorly nourished broods.

Vocal begging by nestlings and vulnerability to nest predation in Meadow Pipits Anthus pratensis; to what extent do predation costs of begging exist?

Models of the evolution of parent‐offspring communication and of brood size assume that the noisy begging by the young is costly in terms of predation. The present study was designed to investigate cause‐and‐effect relations between the behaviour of the offspring and adult Meadow Pipits Anthus pratensis and the risk of nest predation. Harriers (Circus spp.), which can use auditory signals, were the main predators in the study area. I found that the intensity of vocal begging by broods did not influence their survival, despite the fact that the proportion of time that parents sacrificed to nest guarding declined with increased begging and some broods readily begged if a stimulus resembling the approaching parent was produced. The lack of fitness penalties for noisy broods was attributed to the following factors: (1) the open habitat was easy to scan, and parents silenced the young before feeding them if a predator was close (this adaptation was demonstrated in an experiment) and (2) parent birds could not deter harriers searching for prey, and therefore nest guarding did not influence the probability of nest detection. Pitfalls in the interpretation of relations between the vocal begging and the vulnerability to nest predation are discussed.

The effect of nestling condition on risk-taking in meadow pipits

The harm to offspring hypothesis, which says that parental investment should be related to the harm that offspring without parental care would suffer, was tested on meadow pipits,Anthus pratensis. We placed a stuffed European weasel,Mustela nivalis, 5m from seven nests with exothermic 1–3-day-old nestlings. We measured air temperature and the cloacal temperature of the nestlings at the start of the trial and the time elapsing between the removal of the weasel model and the parent's first entry into the nest. We compared pairs of trials at each nest when nestling condition was good (normal cloacal temperature) and when it was temporarily poor (reduced cloacal temperature). The hypothesis predicts a shorter elapsed time when nestling condition was poor. In all cases the females entered the nest before the males and entered more quickly when nestling condition was poor. The results thus supported the harm to offspring hypothesis.

Diet and habitat preferences of wintering passerines on the Taff/Ely saltmarshes

The ecology of passerines using saltmarshes in winter is poorly known. The distribution and abundance of passerines on the Taff/Ely saltmarshes were studied between October 1983 and March 1984. Twenty-two species of passerine were recorded. Their numbers fluctuated irregularly throughout the winter. The four most abundant species, Skylark, Chaffinch, Meadow Pipit and Reed Bunting, showed preferences for certain plant communities. Skylarks shifted from the Asteretum community to Spartinetum, and Chaffinches from the Asteretum to a mixed-species community as winter progressed. Faecal analysis showed that both species consumed seeds from similar plants but took them in different proportions.