Component Materials Research Articles

Penggunaan Media Animasi Audio Visual untuk Meningkatkan Hasil Belajar IPA di SD Negeri 2 Kota Ternate

The Study done with objective For know the use of audio visual animation media in science subjects in improving learning outcomes of class VI A students of SD Negeri 2 Kota Ternate. The type of research used is Classroom Action Research (CAR). The subjects in this study were 30 class VI A students consisting of 17 boys and 13 girls. The implementation of the action was carried out in 2 cycles and each cycle was carried out in 2 meetings. Each meeting must go through 4 stages, namely planning, implementation, observation, and reflection. After the implementation of cycle I, the students' learning outcomes with an average value of 67 or classical completeness were 16 students (53%). Furthermore, in cycle II, an average value of 77 was obtained with classical completeness of 27 students (90%). Based on the results of the study, it can be concluded that audio-visual animation media can improve science learning outcomes, especially in the material of simple electrical components in class VI-A students of SD Negeri 2 Kota Ternate

Analysis of FGM-type porous sandwich plates subjected to free vibration using Student Order Theory

This research adopts a high-order shear deformation theory to explore the free vibration characteristics of square porous sandwich plates constructed from functionally graded materials (FGMs). This theory effectively addresses shear deformation effects without necessitating a shear correction factor. The material properties of the FGMs change continuously throughout the plate's thickness, following a power-law distribution (P-FGM) based on the volume fractions of the component materials. The outer layers are metal, while a uniform ceramic layer constitutes the core. The governing equations are derived from the principle of virtual displacements. This study examines three different porosity distributions. By utilizing Hamilton's principle, the equations of motion were formulated. The numerical analysis demonstrates how the distribution of materials, geometry, and porosity affect the free vibration responses of FGM sandwich plates. The validity of the present theory is studied by comparing certain results obtained with other results published in the literature.

Exploring graphdiyne - Dynamic characterisation of the surface oxidation mechanisms via ReaxFF-MD and experiments

Graphdiyne (GDY) is an emerging two-dimensional carbon allotrope comprising unique sp1 and sp2 hybridisation, which has attracted extensive investigation into various applications, especially as battery component materials owing to its excellent electromechanical properties. However, GDY's thermal stability and oxidation behaviour have yet to be evaluated, which is crucial to safety in high-energy applications. The present study characterised the thermophysical properties of GDY via reactive molecular dynamics (MD-ReaxFF) and experimental measurement. The oxidation kinetics and decomposition behaviour were elucidated and benchmarked with graphene (GP) and graphyne (GY) to investigate the correlation between thermal stability and morphology of carbon nanomaterials. The simulation results revealed the initial oxidation mechanism of GDY sheets, where the cleavage of C–C bonds was observed at the acetylenic chain and could be identified as the weak spots of the structural stability. As for oxidation kinetics, GDY's experimental and numerical activation energy was found to be 173.1 and 133 kJ/mol, which is lower than 220.8 kJ/mol of GP. The current work pioneer investigated the thermal stability of GDY using both experimental and numerical approaches. Meanwhile, different oxidation mechanisms between GP and GDY were distinguished and demonstrated in detail.

Analysis on future development of solar cells focusing on materials and devices

In recent times, solar cells have garnered significant attention due to their numerous advantages. These include continuously improving energy conversion efficiency, a simple solution preparation method, flexibility, lightweight design, wearability, suitability for ultra-lightweight space applications, and low-cost material components. Perovskite solar cells have achieved impressive efficiencies of over 25% by using high-quality perovskite films synthesized at low temperatures and by making advancements in compatible interface and electrode materials. Moreover, the stability of cells has become a major focus of research. This paper analyzes the development history, material system, device structure, challenges, and future development direction of perovskite solar cells. The unique photoelectric properties and tunable band gap of materials have made them a hot topic in the field of solar cells. In this paper, the basic characteristics and synthesis methods of perovskite materials are introduced before discussing the device structure, interface engineering, and stability of perovskite solar cells in detail. Finally, it prospects on the future development trend of perovskite solar cells.

Numerical analysis of axially loaded concrete-filled steel tubular columns strengthened with CFRP grid-reinforced ECC

Carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) and engineered cementitious composites (ECC) are commonly used to reinforce structural elements, with proven effectiveness in enhancing the performance of concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) columns as shown in prior experimental studies. However, the complex interaction among the components of the reinforced columns, including CFRP, ECC, the steel tube, and the concrete core, as well as the underlying mechanical mechanisms, remain insufficiently understood. This research aims to fill these gaps by developing a 3D finite element (FE) model of circular CFST short columns reinforced with CFRP grid-reinforced ECC for comprehensive numerical analysis. Sensitivity analyses are conducted to determine the governing parameters in the numerical simulation, including mesh size and critical plasticity parameters for the concrete damage model, such as the ratio of the second stress invariant on the tensile meridian to that on the compressive meridian (Kc), and the dilation angle (ψ) for both the concrete core and ECC. The model also accounts for the effects of concrete confinement provided by the CFRP grid-reinforced ECC layer and the circular steel tube. The accuracy of the FE model is validated against existing experimental data, and the model is subsequently used to investigate the behavior of reinforced CFST columns under varying geometric and material properties. The study examines failure modes, axial load-displacement responses, stress distributions, and the contribution of each material component to the load-bearing capacity of the strengthened columns. The results indicate an increase in ultimate axial strength ranging from 13% to 20% for the reinforced CFST columns. While the compressive strength of the ECC has a moderate effect on axial resistance, increasing ECC thickness, concrete strength, and steel tube yield strength significantly enhances the columns’ load-bearing capacity. Finally, a novel design model is proposed and validated, which accounts for the confinement effects provided by the CFRP grid and ECC on the concrete core.

Recent Progress on the Materials of Oxygen Ion-Conducting Solid Oxide Fuel Cells and Experimental Analysis of Biogas-Assisted Electrolysis over a LSC Anode

In this work, the recent achievements in the application of solid oxides fuel cells (SOFCs) are discussed. This paper summarizes the progress in two major topics: the materials for the electrolytes, anode, and cathode, and the fuels used, such as hydrocarbon, alcohol, and solid carbon fuels. Various aspects related to the development of new materials for the main components of the materials for electrocatalysts and for solid electrolytes (e.g., pure metals, metal alloys, high entropy oxides, cermets, perovskite oxides, Ruddlesden–Popper phase materials, scandia-stabilized-zirconia, perovskite oxides, and ceria-based solid electrolytes) are reported in a coherent and explanatory way. The selection of appropriate material for electrocatalysts and for solid electrolyte is crucial to achieve successful commercialization of the SOFC technology, since enhanced efficiency and increased life span is desirable. Based on the recent advancements, tests were conducted in a biogas-fueled Ni-YSZ/YSZ/GDC/LSC commercial cell, to elucidate the suitability of the LSC as an anode. Results obtained encourage the application of LSC as an anode in actual SOFC and SOFEC systems. Thus, H2-SOFC demonstrated a satisfying ASR value, while, for biogas-assisted electrolysis, the current values slightly increased compared to the methane-SOFEC, and for a 50/50 biogas mixture of methane and carbon dioxide, the corresponding value presented the higher increase.

Electrochemical Deterioration of a Gold Thin Film in Bicarbonate Solution: Correlative Optical, Nano-Mechanical, and Chemical Considerations.

The electrochemical dissolution of metals in liquid electrolytes is of great concern for various electrochemical technologies. However, it is also the focus for boosting metal recovery processes, e.g., from electronic wastes, one of which is the extraction of gold (Au) using eco-friendly electrolytes. To shed more light on the possibility and improvement of such metal leaching, this work presents the investigation of electrochemical deterioration of a Au nanofilm coated on a silicon (Si) support─ubiquitous materials in electronic components─in aqueous potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3) electrolyte, a solution widely used in food products. In addition to the time-dependent in situ Raman spectra revealing the reduced reflectivity of Au associated with its molecular degradation, the significant role of the electric double layer (EDL) at the metal/electrolyte interface is also indicated. Analyzing surface adhesion maps and force-distance spectra acquired using atomic force microscopy and spectroscopy (AFM/AFS), metal degradation is related to nanoscale worm-shaped reconstructed surface features that act as local sites of reduced refractive index. Complemented by the non-negligible fraction of K observed on the treated Au surfaces using scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM/EDS), an electrochemical framework of metal degradation is proposed, depicting the electric-field-induced transport of K+ and H+ ions toward the Au surface regardless of bias polarity and implying the formation of ternary gold hydrides. The consideration of faradic current in the EDL circuit also suggests the occurrence of ternary gold oxides. Such determination is reinforced by the attributability of the polar and electrostatic characteristics of the worm-like features to residual negatively charged anionic clusters of the hydrides and the oxides. The analysis process and the new understanding of metal degradation provide a potential route for inspecting other metal/solution systems.

Saturate Acts as Both a "Lubricant" and an "Activator" during the Conversion Process of Mesophase in Fluid Catalytic Cracking Slurry Oil.

Saturate (Sa), the lightest component in fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) slurry oil, exhibits a poorly understood influence on the formation and development of mesophase, thereby constraining the production of premium-quality mesophase pitch. To address this issue, Sa is isolated from FCC slurry oil, and its concentration is modulated to investigate its impact on the formation and development of mesophase. The results indicate that Sa contains a high concentration of long alkane side chains and naphthenic structures, which render it an effective "lubricant" and "activator" within the reaction system. The addition of a small amount of Sa (≤5 wt %) maintains a low viscosity state of the reaction system, further facilitating the migration of aromatic molecules and promoting mesophase formation. It is crucial to note that excessive amounts of Sa (>10 wt %) significantly reduce the aromaticity and reactivity of the reaction system, further delaying the formation of mesophase. The reaction system exhibits moderate aromaticity and reactivity with low viscosity at 10 wt % Sa, leading to the formation of mesophase pitch with a moderate softening point (270 °C) and a wide-area optical texture (anisotropy length >60 μm, width >10 μm) within a short time of 6 h. This work establishes a robust theoretical foundation for producing premium-quality mesophase pitch through the regulation of raw material components.

An Increase in the Rigidity of the Environment Favors MLCT over the MC State in [Ru(bpy)2(Nicotine)2](Cl)2: A Case Study of Photolabile Ligands.

Ru(II)-complexes with photolabile ligands find a wide range of applications, e.g., in drug release and in the design of light-responsive interfaces. While light-driven ligand loss has been studied mechanistically in detail for complexes in solution, comparably few studies are present that investigate the process in a material context, i.e., in a rigid environment and in the absence of solvent. This paper adds to this underrepresented perspective by studying the excited-state dynamics of [Ru(bpy)2(nicotine)2] (Cl)2 (Ru-nico) as a model system in poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and polyacrylonitrile (PAN) matrices. Femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy and time-resolved emission spectroscopy are employed to monitor the photodissociation of labile nicotine ligands in polymer environments. Photoexcitation within the metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) band leads to transient dissociation of the nicotine ligand when the complex is dissolved in water. However, optical excitation of the 1MLCT transition of the complexes embedded in polymer matrices does not result in photodissociation, likely due to the rigidity of the environment, which cannot solvate the undercoordinated complex after ligand dissociation and the dissociated ligand. These insights shed light on the role of the local environment when considering the photophysics of ligand loss from Ru(II)-polypyridyl complexes and, hence, their use in the light-activation of reactive molecular components in materials.

Experimental Evaluation of Under Slab Mats (USMs) Made from End-of-Life Tires for Ballastless Tram Track Applications.

The growing population of urban areas results in the need to deal with the noise pollution from the transportation system. This study presents experimental test results of static and dynamic elastic characteristics of under slab mats (USMs) according to the procedure of DIN 45673-7. Prototype USMs based on recycled elastomeric materials, i.e., SBR granules and fibres produced from waste car tires, are analysed. Vibration isolation mats with different thicknesses (10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 40 mm), densities (500 and 600 kg/m3), and different degrees of space filling (no holes, medium holes, large holes) are considered. Moreover, a practical application of the laboratory test results of USMs in the design of ballastless track structures of two different types (with a concrete slab and longitudinal beams) is presented. Deflections of the rail and the floating slab system, as well as stresses acting on the mat, are determined according to EN 16432-2. The use of shredded rubber from recycled car tires as a material component of sustainable and environmentally friendly tram track structures may be one of the most effective ways to manage rubber waste within the current trend toward a circular economy, and this study intends to introduce methods for experimental identification and analytical selection of basic static and dynamic parameters of prototype USMs.

Nanosilica/recycled polycarbonate composites for electronic packaging

Several simple methods were performed to recycle compact discs (CDs) using an alkaline solution. The hydrophilic silica nanoparticles were incorporated into the recycled deinked polycarbonate CDs, and these particles affected the dielectric, structure, and thermal properties of the recycled polycarbonates. The thermal properties of recycled CDs were studied by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). No significant change in the thermal stability of polycarbonate/silica nanocomposites was observed with the mechanical/chemical modifications. X-ray diffraction (XRD) revealed the structural aspects, showing a correlation between crystallinity, silica nanoparticles, and modification methods. The mechanically treated sample after chemical handling had the lowest degree of crystallinity (48 %), showing that the modification methods enhanced the formation of the amorphous state, thus affecting its dielectric properties. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) characterized the CD samples' microstructure and morphology. Finally, the dielectric properties were studied using broadband dielectric spectroscopy (BDS) in the 101–106 Hz range. The samples prepared using chemical and mechanical treatments were of low dielectric loss. This increases its importance when such samples are used as antistatic charge materials. For these reasons, recycled PC/SiO2 nanocomposites are recommended as effective packaging materials for electronic components.

Traveling wave vibration characteristics of rotating FGM conical shell

Abstract Conical shell is common structural component in various rotating machinery. The study of traveling wave vibration performance of conical shell is of great significant for the design of rotating machinery. This paper addresses the traveling wave vibration performance of rotating functionally graded material (FGM) conical shells. Artificial springs, uniformly distributed, are employed to simulate the boundary constraints of rotating FGM conical shell. Accounting for the effects of Coriolis and centrifugal forces caused by rotation, the energy equation of rotating FGM conical shell is calculated, and then the dynamical model of the rotating FGM conical shell under elastic supported constraints is established using the Lagrange equation. The influence of key factors on traveling wave frequency and response characteristics of rotating FGM conical shell are investigated including rotational speed, half-cone angle and material components.

Optimization of three-dimensional Tesla valve-based passive micromixer for gradient functional materials mixing

With the rapid development of three-dimensional (3D) printing technology, the field of multi-material fabrication, particularly in the production of functionally graded materials, has achieved revolutionary advancements. However, the structures of micromixers, which are central to this technology, have not been sufficiently studied. This study introduces an optimized passive micromixer design based on a 3D Tesla valve, specifically engineered for the efficient mixing of Fe3O4 particles within an epoxy resin E51 matrix. The micromixer leverages the fluid dynamics of the Tesla valve, where sudden changes in flow direction generate secondary flows that enhance mixing performance by disrupting laminar flow and inducing chaotic advection, thereby increasing the interfacial area between different material components. This process significantly improves mixing efficiency in the fabrication of gradient materials. Through theoretical analysis and computational simulations, the study identifies optimal configurations for the Tesla valve system, emphasizing mixing dynamics that enhance material gradient formation. The findings reveal that optimal mixing efficiency is achieved with a configuration comprising three Tesla valves. This optimal setup includes a 0.5-mm opening width at the turning point, an immediate transition from the turning point to the straight pipe (0 mm length), a 0.25-mm structural height for the Tesla valve, and an outlet distance of 0.25 mm from the curved pipe. Hopefully, this study can provide a robust reference for the significant potential of future applications in the realm of multi-material 3D printing, thereby fostering its substantial growth prospects.

Honeycomb Molding - Forming Thermoplastic Sandwich Structures for Interior Applications

Trains play an important role in the sustainable mobility of the future. The changes in the market are reflected in the number of newly approved series by the German Federal Railway Authority (EBA); 226 new designs and redesigns of train cars were approved for use on German rails in 2019. Phenol-formaldehyde resins are used extensively specifically for railcar interiors. However, phenol-formaldehyde resins release carcinogenic vapors during and even after production if not completely sealed. As a result, European production standards and requirements have been increased, making the material less economical and increasingly difficult to enter the market. Further bans aimed at lower formaldehyde release limits are currently being considered by the European Union's Committee for Risk Assessment (RAC) and Committee for Socioeconomic Analysis (SEAC). In order to develop and design alternative materials, it is important to meet the requirements for stiffness, light weight, insulation and sustainability simultaneously. This research aim is therefore to develop a new class of material for interior components with improved stiffness, lower weight, lower CO2 footprint and no health hazards. The approach is to develop advanced composite sandwich panels that retain the ability to be molded into complex structures for interior applications. This is done through a thermoplastic honeycomb core structure that is manufactured directly from sheet material and fiber reinforced organo-sheets as the outer layers. The base matrix for all layers is kept uniform for better recyclability and consists of polycarbonate (PC) with sufficient flame retardant properties to provide an environmentally friendly alternative to existing phenolic resin and aramid epoxy honeycomb solutions while still complying with the security norms.

A review on high-performance SiCf/SiC composites prepared by PIP process

Silicon carbide fiber-reinforced silicon carbide ceramic matrix composites (SiCf/SiC) are considered as a promising material for aero-engine hot-end structural components. The polymer infiltration and pyrolysis (PIP) process offers the benefits of high cost-effectiveness, adjustable preparation temperatures, and the ability to fabricate components with complex shapes. The manufacture of high-performance SiCf/SiC composites using the PIP process has become a research focus. This review briefly generalizes the synthesis methods of polycarbosilane and the specific process of polycarbosilane converting into SiC ceramics during pyrolysis. In addition, the physical and mechanical properties of SiCf/SiC composites prepared by the PIP process in recent years are discussed. Furthermore, this review summarizes some improvements to address the shortcomings of the PIP process, including adding fillers and combining other processes to assist the PIP process. At last, the future development trend of high-performance SiCf/SiC composites prepared by the PIP process is prospected.

Effects of Sn addition in W-doped Ag paste against electrochemical corrosion and sulfurization

PurposeThis study aims to address these challenges by enhancing the resistance of Ag-based pastes to corrosion and sulfurization, thereby improving their performance and weatherability in high-power and high-frequency electronic applications.Design/methodology/approachThis study investigates the influence of Sn doping in W-doped Ag paste to enhance resistance against electrochemical corrosion and sulfurization. A systematic examination was conducted using transient liquid phase sintering and solid–liquid inter-diffusion techniques to understand the microstructural and electrochemical properties.FindingsThis study found that Sn addition in W-doped Ag paste significantly improves its resistance to electrochemical corrosion and sulfurization. The sintering process at 600°C led to the formation of an Ag2WO4 phase at the grain boundaries, which, along with the presence of Sn, effectively inhibited the growth of Ag2WO4 grains. The 0.5% Sn-doped samples exhibited optimal anti-corrosion properties, demonstrating a longer grain boundary length and a passivation effect that significantly reduced the corrosion rate. No Ag2S phase was detected in the weatherability tests, confirming the enhanced durability of the doped samples.Originality/valueThe findings of this study highlight the potential of Sn-doped Ag-W composites as a promising material for electronic components, particularly in environments prone to sulfurization and corrosion. By improving the anti-corrosion properties and reducing the grain size, this study offers a new approach to extending the lifespan and reliability of electronic devices, making a significant contribution to the development of advanced materials for high-power and high-frequency applications.

Strain rate-dependent tension-compression asymmetry in cast Mg-Gd-Y alloy: Insights into slip and twinning mechanisms

Tension-compression asymmetry is a critical concern for magnesium (Mg) alloys, particularly in automotive crash structures. This study systematically examines the tension-compression asymmetry of a cast Mg-Gd-Y alloy at various strain rates. Experimental results indicate symmetric yielding stress under both tension and compression at all strain rates, along with a reduction in the tension-compression asymmetry of ultimate stress and plastic strain as the strain rate increases. This trend arises from an unusual strain rate-dependent tension-compression asymmetry, characterized by strain rate toughening in tension and negligible strain rate effect in compression. The differing behavior is linked to the distinct twinning mechanisms under tension and compression. The suppression of twinning under tension contributes to the positive strain rate dependence of pyramidal slip, whereas the activation of abundant twins during compression means that pyramidal slip is unnecessary to accommodate c-axis strain, leading to the absence of a strain rate effect in compression. Abundant twins nucleate consistently from yielding to 2% strain, but only after basal and prismatic <a> slip have mediated microplasticity, suggesting that these slip systems reduce the nucleation stress for twinning during compression, resulting in a lower activation stress for twinning compared to tension. This study provides new insights into micromechanisms of the tension-compression asymmetry in cast Mg-Gd-Y alloys and offers practical guidance for the application of these materials in critical components that must endure both tension and compression under varying strain rates.

Fabrication and characterization of rubcrete-iron composite for mixed radiation shielding

Mixed radiation environments need unique shielding materials that can effectively attenuate photons and neutrons simultaneously. Most ordinary shielding materials can only shield one form of radiation effectively. In this work, a novel composite material was fabricated in our laboratories and characterized for photon and neutron shielding. Waste materials were used as partial substitutes for aggregates in concrete, which is a sustainable practice in the building industry at present. The main components of the composite material are iron filings, rubber, and concrete. Concrete samples were mixed with iron filings at varying percentages (0%, 10%, 20%, and 30%) and a fixed 5% crumb rubber content. The material’s photon and neutron shielding characteristics were evaluated through experimental and simulation methods. Gamma-ray attenuation measurements were experimentally carried out using a NaI(TI) spectrometer and a Cs-137 0.662 MeV energy source. In contrast, GEANT4, PHY-X/PSD, and NIST-XCOM codes were used to simulate photon and neutron cross-sections. The findings indicate that an increase in iron filings results in enhanced radiation attenuation, reflected by a higher linear attenuation coefficient (μ). The linear attenuation coefficient values range from (0.1590 ± 0.0004) to (0.2045 ± 0.0003) cm−1 for samples with no crumb rubber and from (0.1521 ± 0.0002) to (0.1920 ± 0.0004) cm−1 for samples with 5% crumb rubber. Half Value Layer (HVL) decreases with an increase in iron content and is slightly higher in samples with crumb rubber. The HVL results from simulations and measurements agree. This study optimizes the potential of concrete as a radiation-shielding material while promoting sustainable construction and environmental practices.

Recycling and optimum utilization of CRT glass as building materials: An application of low CO2 based circular economy for sustainable construction

The construction industry is the major contributor of CO2 emission around the globe. The rapid advances in the electronics industry have transformed the disposal of cathode ray tube glass waste (CRT-WG) into a prominent environmental concern. Recycling of CRT glasses as building materials can help in the production of sustainable construction. Numerous previous studies have documented that CRT-WG can be utilized either as a component of fine aggregate or binder material as it provides a cleaner solution and reduce carbon emission. Under this cleaner production and low CO2 emission perspective, this paper provides a thorough review of the previous studies on the utilization of CRT glass as a partially and fully substitute of sand and cementitious material in mortar production and propose an application of CO2 based circular economy model for reduce carbon emissions. This paper summarized the fresh, mechanical and durability properties of mortar incorporating treated and un-treated CRT-WG with different mineral additives and w/b ratios. Furthermore, this research explores the optimal proportions of CRT glass that can be use as replacements for sand and cement powder to make eco-friendly and sustainable low carbon mortar suitable for both structural and non-structural applications. More particularly, this review emphasizes the benefits, the need for additional research, and the drawbacks of CRT-WG use in construction building. Overall, this study proposes that incorporating CRT glass into building materials through a low CO2 based circular economy offers significant potential advantages. This study will help in optimization of CRT glass in concrete mix design in combination with waste materials for sustainable construction.

Influence of steel-to-concrete ratio on sustainable column design in Saudi Arabia

This study investigates the impact of the steel-to-concrete ratio in building columns on environmental factors, embodied energy, and cost estimations in a hotel construction scenario in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. This study focuses on the production (A1–A3) and construction (A4–A5) stages, omits the use and disposal phases, and extensively examines the material components and their environmental implications. It evaluates the environmental impact of diverse column types. Revit 2022 (Autodesk®) is used to model scenarios with steel-to-concrete ratios of 1.2 %, 1.5 %, and 1.8 %. The most cost-effective steel-to-concrete ratio is 1.2 %, which reduces the embodied carbon and energy by 32 % and 35 %, respectively. A steel-to-concrete ratio of 1.8 % increases the embodied carbon and energy by 13 % and 14 %, respectively, compared with the base case. This indicates the significant contributions of concrete and steel to the embodied carbon and energy during the production stages. This study emphasizes the diminishing cost effectiveness of increasing the steel ratio beyond 1.2 % and highlights the importance of balancing steel usage and cost efficiency in column construction.