Brick Masonry Research Articles

Strengthening of brick masonry using biaxial polypropylene geogrid as confinement reinforcement

Strengthening of brick masonry using biaxial polypropylene geogrid as confinement reinforcement

Experimental Research on Pull-Out Performance of Grouted Anchor Rods with Bushings Inside Brick Masonry

Experimental Research on Pull-Out Performance of Grouted Anchor Rods with Bushings Inside Brick Masonry

Enhancing Residential Construction Efficiency: Evaluating Interlock Blocks as a Sustainable Alternative to Traditional Brick Construction (A Case Study of Private Housing in Setipakha Height, Lalitpur)

In Nepal, traditional clay red bricks have been extensively used in residential and commercial construction, but their labour-intensive nature has prompted the exploration of alternative construction materials. This study investigates the feasibility of using interlocking blocks as a replacement for traditional bricks in residential housing, focusing on cost, strength, and socioeconomic acceptance. Through a combination of literature review, lab tests, and on-site observations, the properties of interlock blocks were evaluated and compared with traditional bricks. The study area, Setipakha Height in Lalitpur, provided a suitable context for data collection, given the prevalent use of interlock blocks in ongoing housing projects. Results from compressive strength tests revealed that interlock blocks exhibited comparable strength to both first- and second-class bricks, indicating their suitability for load-bearing applications. Additionally, interlock blocks demonstrated lower water absorption rates compared to clay bricks, suggesting enhanced durability and resistance to moisture-related issues. Furthermore, interlock blocks showed higher density and consistency, potentially offering greater structural integrity and material efficiency. Cost analysis indicated that interlock block masonry was more cost-effective than traditional brick masonry, with potential savings in construction time and labour requirements. Moreover, interlock blocks, when properly manufactured, could provide a sustainable alternative to traditional bricks, reducing environmental impact. In conclusion, interlock blocks present a promising alternative to traditional clay bricks in residential construction, offering advantages in terms of strength, durability, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability. Recommendations include the adoption of interlock blocks in construction projects, further research on their long-term performance, regulatory considerations, and increased awareness among stakeholders in the construction industry. Embracing interlock blocks has the potential to revolutionize residential construction practices in Nepal, contributing to sustainable development and meeting the housing needs of communities.

Development of structural type-based physical vulnerability curves to debris flow using numerical analysis and regression model

Urbanization has significantly increased the risk of debris flows to houses located at mountain boundaries, particularly in South Korea, where urban centers are surrounded by mountains. The degree of damage to a house strongly depends on the structural rigidity of the building, even when exposed to the same hazard intensities. However, the structural characteristics of buildings are usually disregarded in vulnerability assessments. In this study, vulnerability curves were proposed for three different structural types of buildings: brick masonry, light-weight steel frame, and wood structures, using numerical and regression analyses. A total of 22 debris flow events from 2011 to 2020 and 63 cases of damage to unreinforced structures were collected and analyzed. Back analysis of the debris flows was performed using Flow-R, and the impact pressure acting on each structure was calculated. Three different vulnerability curves were proposed using various linear and nonlinear regression analyses; the Avrami equation provided the highest statistical significance. The vulnerability curves of three different structures were similar for the slight damage range. However, over the slight damage range, the wood structure was the most vulnerable at a given hazard intensity, whereas the brick masonry structure was the least vulnerable. Validation was performed using data from recent debris flow events, revealing precise damage level predictions for 9 out of 11 buildings. Compared with previous research, the degree of damage at the same hazard intensity was found to be significantly dependent on the structural type. The developed vulnerability curve for each unreinforced structure can be used as key data for vulnerability and risk assessments.

Seismic fragility evaluation of the Nepalese pagoda temple: A case study of Laxmi Narsingha temple

The preservation of cultural heritage has been a global concern. In the context of vulnerability assessments and risk reduction strategies studied, historical monument rehabilitation in Nepal has often occurred without a comprehensive damage grade analysis. This paper addresses this gap by presenting a seismic fragility assessment of a two-tier Nepalese pagoda temple, with the Laxmi Narsingha temple as a case study. This pagoda temple features load-bearing brick masonry with timber posts and crossbeams. Comparative finite element (FE) models—one with a masonry-timber interface and one without—were analyzed and subjected to pushover analysis. The failure mechanisms (cracks) in these models revealed distinct behavioral differences. The study further examined the influence and sensitivity of masonry properties on the temple's response quantities through parametric assessments. Furthermore, fragility analysis of the temple's analytical models was done for three performance levels- Immediate Occupancy (IO), Life Safety (LS), and Collapse Prevention (CP). The fragility analysis results indicate that the model with a masonry-timber interface recorded a higher likelihood of exceeding the limit states over the one without interface characteristics counterpart. The study helps to analyze and decide over the selection of a suitable analytical procedure to represent the failure mechanisms exhibited by the pagoda structure.

SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF AN INDUSTRIALIZED HOUSE

The PRO.CRE.AR. Bicentenario (Argentine Bicentennial Single-Family Housing Credit Program) implemented between 2012 and 2015 approximately, included a model of wooden houses, thus enhancing in Argentina the opportunity to have a house built with industrialized wooden elements. The paper compares at a conceptual level the construction of the same house (similar to the prototype named “Maderera”) as a traditional building, i.e., with brick masonry and reinforced concrete, and instead with industrialized wood construction as funded by the PRO.CRE.AR program: the comparison focuses on the amount of CO2 incorporated in the two constructive solutions. Alongside this assessment, conducted on the basis of estimated quantities of materials and data found in the literature, the paper examines the amount of CO2 not produced over the lifetime of the house when photovoltaic elements and solar panels are possibly adopted for local energy production and then discusses the positive impact of any energy storage systems. The results regarding the building energy demand and the CO2 saved support the choice of building industrialization for the wood supply chain, propose additional options for the deployment of wood construction, and evaluate the impact of home PV & solar panels for sustainability and integration into the technological system.

Estimating the modulus of elasticity and the compressive strength of brick, mortar and masonry at different scales

This study includes extensive compression tests on clay brick units, gypsum mortar, and masonry configurations, incorporating both gypsum and cement mortar, across four distinct scales 1:1, 1:2, 1:4, and 1:6. It investigates the relationship between compressive strength and modulus of elasticity, with the aim of providing precise estimation tools for these important mechanical properties. Systematic experimentation is employed, and scatter diagrams illustrate the dynamic interplay between modulus of elasticity and compressive strength. The derived coefficients, validated against experimental data, verify the accuracy of the proposed relationships. Specifically, the derived coefficient η, representing the ratio of modulus of elasticity to compressive strength, exhibits scale-dependent variations. For brick units, η ranges from 104 for the 1:1 scale to 126 for the 1:6 scale, emphasising the impact of size. Additionally, the coefficient η for gypsum mortar demonstrates a 20% increase with a rise in the water-to-gypsum ratio. Regarding masonry configurations, the coefficient η in the BS method varies from 91 for the 1:6 scale to 139 for the 1:2 scale. In the RILEM method, the coefficient η ranges from 48 for the 1:6 scale to 105 for the 1:1 scale. The proposed relationships display a negligible deviation from experimental results, affirming their robustness. Furthermore, a relationship is introduced for estimating masonry compressive strength based on the compressive strength of both the brick and the mortar at different scales. The accuracy of this relationship is verified by its minor deviation from experimental results.

Survey and preliminary assessment of a baroque vault for refurbishment planning

Abstract Designing the modification of buildings for a new use is a costly and time-consuming process, before which it is often necessary to conduct a preliminary assessment of the feasibility of the intended project. The article discusses the procedure for such a preliminary cost-effective assessment using the example of a historic building with vaulted ceilings. For older historical buildings, archival documents specifying their geometry, construction details and material characteristics are typically not available. For the preliminary design, it is possible to obtain information about the dimensions of the load-bearing elements non-destructively. However, the knowledge of the exact material properties of the masonry exceeds the possibilities of an inexpensive assessment, which must take advantage of the data available in the literature for similar structures. This article presents a methodology and an example of the measurement and assessment of the mechanical response of the Baroque vault to static loading. It shows the process of obtaining data on the geometric shape of the structure by means of geodetic surveying and geometric radar measurements of the thickness of vaults whose upper faces are not accessible. Two models are used to calculate the internal forces in the structure. The first planar model considers a simplified barrel vault strip according to the focused geometry with respect to geometric nonlinearity and without tension, the second model is a linear spatial model of the entire vault. The calculation was performed in ANSYS 17.2, the input parameters of the material are taken from the literature. The calculated stresses in the vault are compared with the values of the design strength of brick masonry, taking into account the characteristic compressive strength of the masonry based on published known data obtained during tests of similar historical materials. The results are then used to decide on the feasibility of the intention to adapt the building for a new use.

Experimental study on the seismic enhancement of brick masonry spandrels using a single-sided composite reinforced mortar coating

AbstractThe paper reports on four cyclic tests of brick masonry spandrels in reference state and strengthened state. The tests were carried out on full-scale, H-shaped masonry panels to investigate the coupling role of the spandrel in connecting two piers in a historical masonry wall subjected to in-plane lateral actions. Two 250-mm-thick solid-brick masonry samples were tested—one single-leaf, the other two-leaves masonry. Both samples were tested before and after strengthening by applying a Composite Reinforced Mortar (CRM) coating on one surface. The CRM coating consisted of a lime mortar coating (nominal thickness = 30 mm), reinforced with mesh made of Glass Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) that was anchored to the wall by GFRP transverse connectors. For the double-leaf masonry, there were additional transverse connectors made of steel bars in concrete cores (artificial diatones) to prevent masonry leaves separation and to improve the bonding of the CRM coating to the masonry. The test responses are compared in terms of crack pattern, failure mode, resistance, displacement and energy dissipation capacity. The tests showed the effectiveness of the proposed CRM system, which increased the spandrel resistance by 33% and 125% in the single—and double-leaf masonry, respectively, with the ultimate drift being 3.2% (one order of magnitude greater than for the unstrengthened reference samples). Data on energy dissipation and the equivalent viscous damping are also collected and compared. Importantly, the presence of the reinforcing mesh and the composite action of the coating and the wall changed the damage evolution and response mechanism, which resulted in a much better seismic response.

The Impact of Wind-Driven Rain on Surface Waterproofed Brick Cavity Walls

Moisture ingress is a major cause of damage to masonry cavity walls. Products of various chemical compositions are available for wall surface treatment, aimed at reducing/eliminating water ingress. This study presents the results of full-scale wall tests designed to quantify water absorption into uninsulated and insulated brick masonry cavity walls exposed to wind-driven rain (WDR) with and without surface waterproofing. Two different waterproofing products were used: acrylic and silane–siloxane mixture. Untreated and treated walls were exposed to cycles consisting of 10 min wetting at 2.25 L/m2·min every 60 min. The results show that both treatments lead to a reduction in water ingress ranging from 90% to 97%. However, while a more consistent performance was obtained for the silane/siloxane-treated walls under repeated exposure, the results for the acrylic treatment were dominated by the original wall conditions, improved with a reapplication of the treatment. The testing protocol proposed in this study is effective in determining the performance of waterproofing treatments exposed to different levels of WDR. Both treatments prove to be effective in preventing moisture uptake in walls in moderate WDR exposure conditions, while in extreme WDR exposure conditions, the acrylic treatment is less effective.

Improving the Efficiency of a Novel Controlled-Sliding-Based Isolation System for Brick Masonry Structures

Improving the Efficiency of a Novel Controlled-Sliding-Based Isolation System for Brick Masonry Structures

Application of the Finite Element Method in Determining the Reduced Heat Transfer Resistance of a Hinged Facade System in Residential Buildings

In this paper, the energy efficiency of a ventilated facade is considered by calculating the reduced heat transfer resistance of a hinged facade system (HFS). We have approved three options for fixing the hinged ventilated facade to three types of walls of residential buildings based on the material of: monolithic reinforced concrete, aerated concrete blocks, and solid brick masonry. The choice of these wall filling materials is due to their wide application, both in new construction and in the reconstruction of existing residential buildings, both in mass development and in private housing construction. The thickness of the insulation is also selected. For the selection of insulation, and in general for the calculation of the enclosing structure, the most important factor is the appearance of a dew point. The dew point depends on the thickness and material of the wall filling, the heat and humidity regime inside the building, and climatic conditions. In this paper, research is carried out in terms of calculating the reduced heat transfer resistance of suspended ventilated facades, taking into account in homogeneities using the finite element method, as well as using the traditional method, taking into account the above factors. A comparison of these calculation methods is made and a conclusion is drawn about the expediency of taking into account point bridges of cold. Through cold bridges, energy losses occur, which leads to a change in the temperature regime in the rooms (temperature decrease) during the cold period of the year, and vice versa, to increased heating of the room during the warm period of the year, which leads to the appearance of a dew point in the wall. On a ventilated facade, the most vulnerable point is the brackets, which belong to the group of point bridges of cold. Based on the calculation results, the best wall filling was determined, which reduces the thickness of the insulation from 30 % to 50 % and reduces the specific weight of the wall structure by 1.25–2.1 times, which significantly affects the load on the building foundation.

PLAXIS 3D numerical analysis of complex geotechnical problems of colossal built heritage

The paper aims to contribute to the preservation of high valuable historic masonry structures and historic urban landscapes through the combination of geotechnical, structural engineering. The main objective of the study is to conduct finite element analysis (FEA) of bearing saturated soft clay soil problems and induced structural failure mechanisms. This analysis is based on experimental and numerical studies using coupled PLAXIS 3D FE models. The paper presents a geotechnical analytical model for the measurement of stresses, deformations, and differential settlement of saturated clay soils under colossal stone/brick masonry structures. The study also discusses the behavior of soft clay soils under Qasr Yashbak through numerical analysis, which helps in understanding the studied behavior and the loss of soil-bearing capacity due to moisture content or ground water table (G.W.T) changes. The paper presents valuable insights into the behavior of soft clay soils under colossal stone/ brick masonry structures. The present study summarized specific details about the limitations and potential sources of error in Finite Element Modeling (FEM). Further field research and experimental analysis may be required to address these limitations and enhance the understanding of the studied soft clay soil behavior. The geotechnical problems in historic monuments and structures such as differential settlement are indeed important issues for their conservation since it may induce serious damages. It deserves more in-depth researches.

Farklı Duvar ve Harç Malzemeleri İle Üretilen Duvarların Mekanik Özelliklerinin Belirlenmesi

Walls produced using different masonry materials and mortars are among the structural elements that carry horizontal and vertical loads. In this context, the mechanical properties of walls produced with different wall and mortar materials have been investigated. In the production of wall samples, Harman Brick (HB), Masonry Brick (MB) and Bimsblok (BB) were chosen as the mesh material Reinforced Mortar (RM) and Polypropylene Fiber Added Mortar (PM) were used as binding materials in the construction of the walls produced in 900x900 mm dimensions. The volumetric mixing ratios of the mortar used were prepared as sand:cement:lime=6:1:1, according to the TSE 2510 standard. The bricked wall samples were subjected to diagonal loading tests after being kept in the laboratory environment for 28 days. Flexural and compressive strengths of the mortars used in wall building, displacement values of the walls, shear strength, rigidity modulus, energy absorption capacity and collapse patterns of the walls were determined. The graphs of the displacement values obtained by examining the behaviors observed in the test samples and the cracks formed were interpreted. It was observed that the shear strength of the walls built using PM was higher than the shear strength of the walls built using RM. The energy absorption capacity was highest in the fibrous specimen laid with masonry bricks. The average vertical load value of the wall specimens built with fibrous mortar, which is the BB of the masonry material, was 30% higher than the specimens built with non-fiber mortar.

Improving In-Plane Behavior of Weak Brick Masonry Walls Through Assimilation of Partially Confining RC Bands

ABSTRACT In this work, a numerical study is conducted to investigate the improvement of in-plane behavior of weak brick masonry walls through assimilation of partially confining horizontal and vertical reinforced concrete (RC) bands. The bands are considered to be assimilated with the existing walls by cutting grooves over the partial thickness of the wall in a easy-to-construct manner. For numerical modeling of the wall width and without partially confining elements, a three-dimensional (3D) macro-modeling approach is utilized as it is computationally efficient compared to other modeling approaches while representing the global behavior reasonably well. The components of macro-models are discretely modeled. The concrete damage plasticity (CDP) model is considered to describe the non-linear behavior of the concrete and masonry for crushing and cracking failures. Steel reinforcements are considered as bilinear with hardening and modeled with perfect adhesion with the surrounding concrete using embedded constraints. Experimental results obtained from the full-scale tests at the Structural Engineering laboratory of IIT Kanpur have been utilized to validate the numerical model. The responses obtained from the numerical model of both with and without RC bands demonstrate that the models reasonably capture the experimental behavior such as initial stiffness, peak loads and post-peak behavior. The initial peak load from the numerical model of without and with RC bands was found to be 3.2% and 6.9% lower than the experimental value, respectively. Although post-yield trends of numerical and experimental results show similar behavior for walls without and with RC bands, the numerical model underestimates the post-yield strength for the wall without RC bands. This deviation can be attributed to the masonry dominated post-peak behavior coupled with modeling assumptions and values of model parameters used for the numerical analysis. Finally, to understand the influence of various parameters on lateral strength, a parametric study has been conducted. From the parametric study, it has been found that the compressive strength of masonry and band aspect ratio are the two most important parameters governing the strength of the wall. Finally, it is noted that a wall with band aspect ratio close to unity provides superior ductile behavior.

Experimental investigation of sliding-based isolation system with re-centering functions for seismic protection of masonry structures

A sliding-based isolation system is an efficient strategy to enhance the seismic performance of low-rise brick masonry buildings, a common type of construction across the globe. The previously developed isolation systems lack a proper re-centering mechanism. Therefore, in this study, a low-cost isolation system, termed reinforced cut wall (RCW) with an appropriate re-centering mechanism, is designed and tested experimentally using a shake table, which hasn’t been tested previously. Two unconfined reduced scale (1:3) brick masonry buildings were subjected to frequency-based seismic excitation, and the model's corresponding acceleration and displacement response were captured. Compared to the fixed base model, considerable reductions were observed in the acceleration and displacement response in the case of the isolated model. Similarly, the inter-story drift and floor relative displacement response was also reduced in the isolated model. Furthermore, the rebars used for the re-centering mechanism remained within the linear viscoelastic range. Based on the experimental validation, the proposed low-cost RCW isolator was found to be an efficient isolation strategy for low-rise masonry buildings in high seismic regions.

Photogrammetry-aided numerical seismic assessment of historical structures composed of adobe, stone and brick masonry. Application to the San Juan Bautista Church built on the Inca temple of Huaytará, Peru

This research presents a cost-effective surveying methodology to assist the seismic assessment of complex heritage buildings, based on terrestrial structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry. The method was applied to the study of the seismic performance of the church of San Juan Bautista – Inca temple of Huaytará, Peru, an emblematic case study due to its complex architecture and coexistence of different construction materials. The geometrical model for the seismic assessment was developed with an error of less than 2 % using SfM photogrammetry. Non-linear static pushover analyses were performed on 3D FEM models of the nave and the towers to evaluate their individual response under seismic loading. Mechanical properties of different structural materials of the church were evaluated based on laboratory experimental tests on mortar and adobe, contemporary and ancient fired brick, Inca stone, colonial stone and rubble stone units. Non-linear pushover analyses were conducted in four directions perpendicular to the perimeter walls, and the response of the structure was compared with the seismic demand specified in Peruvian Standards. The simulations show that damage-prone areas are the western and eastern facades, with cracking at the connections between orthogonal walls, as well as at the interface of adobe masonry with Inca stone masonry. The towers exhibit similar seismic response, with lower strength capacities compared to the main nave. In this case, flexural overturning mechanisms and cracking at the interface between stone and adobe masonry were observed. The displacement-based seismic assessment using the N2 method shows that a peak ground acceleration of 0.21 g could lead to the collapse of the north and south facades of the main nave. The towers showed a much smaller capacity with PGA leading to collapse of approximately 0.09 g. Overall, this study contributes to the understanding of the seismic performance of the Huaytará-Huancavelica church, highlighting vulnerabilities and providing valuable information for its preservation and future interventions. Future investigations should focus on on-site tests that will allow the estimation of the effect of existing damage on the structural response and their incorporation in the numerical model.

Verification of adequacy of structural elements dimensions and Analytical Investigation of structural behaviour of Masonry Infilled and Ferrocement infilled G+2 storied existing structure and through Pushover analysis

Pushover analysis of an existing structure located at Bangalore is carried out to evaluate its available strength. Analysis was carried out in different stages such as modelling for a bare frame structure and infilled with brick masonry and ferrocement with the consideration of openings such as doors and windows. The analysis outcome revealed that the few of the structural members was insufficient to carry external forces for various seismic zone intensities and demanded the retrofitting and thus revision of the structural dimensions were suggested and further analytical studies showed that base shear carrying capacity and displacement parameters significantly affects for different types of infilled materials and bare frames.

Drying of an aerogel-based coating system in Swedish climates: Field tests and simulations

Aerogel-based coating mortars (ACM-systems) introduce new solutions for energy-retrofit of uninsulated building envelopes, preserving their characteristics while minimizing the material thickness. However, when introducing new solutions, the long-term durability needs to be investigated. The hygrothermal (heat and moisture) performance is one aspect that needs to be secured. The aim of this study is to investigate the hygrothermal performance, with specific focus on moisture drying, of an ACM-system for external applications in Swedish climates. A field test was conducted where an ACM-system with 40 mm of ACM was applied on the exterior of a brick masonry wall partition. The temperature and relative humidity in the wall were monitored for 15 months. Furthermore, numerical hygrothermal simulations were used to predict the early stage drying and long-term performance of the ACM-system in four Swedish climates. The field measurements showed that the built-in moisture dried out after approximately 6 months, after which the ACM-system followed the variations in the surrounding climate for the remaining period. The simulations predicted that the early stage drying time ranged from 134 to 336 days, depending on climate and time of application. Furthermore, the elevated relative humidity in the ACM due to rainwater absorption resulted in an average thermal conductivity of up to 9 % above the rated value. Consequently, mitigating water absorption at the exterior is crucial for enhancing the long-term thermal performance in high rain load scenarios.

Failure mode dependent shear strength of unreinforced concrete brick masonry wall panels

This study conducted diagonal compression tests to propose the failure mode dependent shear strength for unreinforced concrete brick wall panels. The test variable was the bed-joint mortar mixing ratio. Six brick wall panels were manufactured for each variable, and finally thirty specimens were tested. The test results showed five failure modes in the unreinforced masonry wall panels: diagonal tension, combined, bed-joint sliding, toe crushing, and non-diagonal failure. Furthermore, the shear strength of unreinforced brick wall panels was highly dependent on the failure mode. Based on the test results, the shear strength is suggested according to each failure mode. Additionally, the shear modulus of concrete brick wall panels was suggested as half of the value presented in the current codes for masonry structures.