Masonry Arch Bridges Research Articles

Failure analysis of multi-span masonry arch bridges using combination of point cloud data and three-dimensional numerical modeling

Historical structures, including historical bridges, are part of cultural heritage, conveying the traces and characteristic features of past civilizations. To protect historical structures, it is necessary to prepare their 3D photogrammetric documentation, determine detailed geometric and material properties and perform computer-aided structural analysis using appropriate modeling techniques. The aim of this study is to present an effective, reliable and fast multidisciplinary approach for the analysis of historical masonry bridges. The aforementioned approach was illustrated with an example of the historical Halilviran masonry arch bridge and its behavior under possible loadings. Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) was used to determine the bridge geometry with high accuracy. Point cloud data obtained from TLS was simplified and a three-dimensional CAD-based solid model of the structure was created. The Halilviran Bridge case study summarized in this report was conducted to examine the technical feasibility of using la¬ser scanning technologies for obtaining as-built records for similar historic bridges. A secondary objective was to identify other applications of this technology, notably for other transportation structures, and use numerical methods to assess the seismic behavior and failure model of the bridge. The seismic behavior of the bridge was examined using a finite-element- based macromodeling technique. Nonlinear dynamic analyses were carried out subsequently to identify the most susceptible regions of the bridge. Interpretation of the results, presented in the form of contour plots illustrating tensile damage and maximum displacements, offered a comprehensive depiction of the seismic response across the entire bridge. The methodology employed in this investigation can be viewed as a robust framework for evaluating the seismic response and potential failure of historical structures.

Blast resistance of CFRP composite strengthened masonry arch bridge under close-range explosion

Carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP) are recognized for their exceptional strength-to-weight ratio. They offer a viable and effective solution for strengthening and retrofitting masonry bridges, helping to extend their service life, improve structural performance, and meet modern safety and load requirements. Wrapping of CFRP around masonry elements can enhance their confinement and ductility. This flexibility plays a crucial role in preventing sudden brittle failure, allowing for controlled deformation, which is essential for blast resistance. Additionally, CFRP materials possess the ability to flex and absorb energy, which proves beneficial in containing and redistributing forces generated during an explosion, consequently reducing the risk of catastrophic failure. This study employed the coupled Eulerian–Lagrangian (CEL) technique available in the finite element software Abaqus/Explicit to simulate the blast loads. Various detonation scenarios were considered, taking into account factors such as location and their impacts on bridge structures. A detailed micro-model was developed using finite element software and accurate geometric data acquired from FARO laser scanning of the case study. The properties of masonry units and backfill were characterized using the Johnson-Holmquist II damage model and Mohr–Coulomb criteria. The Jones-Wilkins-Lee equation of state (EOS) was applied to replicate the behavior of trinitrotoluene (TNT). In accordance with the JH-II model, the researchers formulated a VUMAT code. The study examined the distinct damage mechanisms and overall structural responses of bridges. By evaluating the blast resistance of individual bridge models, the most critical scenarios were pinpointed. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) was then utilized as a method to fortify bridges against blast loads. A comparison was made between the damage propagation before and after the reinforcement.

Analysis of Flood Resistance of Masonry Arch Bridges Combining Numerical Simulation and Probabilistic Analysis

ABSTRACT In the context of global climate change, extreme weather events such as heavy rainfall and floods are becoming more frequent. The safety of masonry arch bridges is facing unprecedented challenges. This study aims to explore the collapse mechanism of bridges in flood environments by combining numerical simulation and stochastic analysis. Taking the collapse of the Original Zhenhai Bridge caused by heavy rainfall in July 2020 as a specific case, a three-dimensional numerical model is established to analyze the mechanical response of the bridge under the combined action of flood scour and water flow loads. Additionally, predictions of scour depth are made using both theoretical formulas and stochastic methods, comparing the impact of stochastic analysis on the mechanical performance of arch bridges under the same flood conditions. The study reveals that compared to pure scour, the structural characteristics of the bridge undergo significant changes under the coupled effects of scour and water flow loads. In extreme flood events, stochastic analysis has a significant impact on the structural safety under high flow conditions. The research results provide case references and scientific methods for the safety analysis of masonry arch bridges in flood environments.

Anomaly detection of cracks in synthetic masonry arch bridge point clouds using fast point feature histograms and PatchCore

Management of ageing masonry arch bridges entails periodic site inspections to identify signs of potential structural degradation. Previous research has focused on detecting surface cracks from images. This paper develops an alternative approach where cracks are identified from point clouds via geometric distortions. An image-based anomaly detection method called PatchCore is customized for 3D applications for this purpose. First, Fast Point Feature Histograms (FPFH) are used to extract geometric features. Then PatchCore is applied on synthetic point clouds with crack labels, generated using 3D finite element modelling (FEM) and graphical modelling. Results show that the proposed method can capture surface and internal cracks in arches. Analyses show that the method is robust against measurement noise, initial damage and masonry surface roughness, and can be applied to other bridge components. Limitations of the method in detecting small changes in curvature and in-plane geometric distortions are highlighted for further improvements.

Failure analysis and structural resilience of a masonry arch Bridge subjected to blast loads: The Case study, Halilviran Bridge

This study investigates the dynamic response of masonry bridges under blast-induced shock waves, focusing on the structural integrity and safety of these critical infrastructure components under extreme conditions. The research employs theoretical approaches to analyze the effects of blast-induced shock waves on masonry bridge structures. A comprehensive numerical simulation framework is developed using finite element analysis (FEA) to model the dynamic interactions between blast waves and the masonry materials. Key parameters, including the blast load intensity, duration, and distance from the blast source, are varied to assess their impact on bridge performance. The results reveal significant insights into the deformation patterns, stress distribution, and potential failure modes of masonry bridges under blast loading scenarios. The findings underscore the importance of incorporating blast resistance measures in the design and retrofitting of masonry bridges to enhance their resilience against explosive events. This study contributes to the advancement of safety standards and design guidelines for masonry bridge structures in the context of blast loading, providing valuable information for engineers, policymakers, and infrastructure managers.

Blast Resistance of Retrofitted Unreinforced Masonry Arch Bridge with Reinforced Concrete Pavement and Infill Replacement

Blast Resistance of Retrofitted Unreinforced Masonry Arch Bridge with Reinforced Concrete Pavement and Infill Replacement

Collapse analysis of a masonry arch bridge using the applied element method

Masonry arch bridges constitute a fundamental part of the European transport network. Given their historical relevance and ongoing functional role, often under significantly higher load conditions than originally designed for, a reliable assessment of their load-bearing capacity is essential to understand whether they can guarantee adequate structural performance. To address this need, research efforts have focused on the development of computational methods capable of providing realistic simulations of the structural and collapse behavior of this kind of structures. In this context, the present paper aims to evaluate the application of the recently developed Applied Element Method (AEM) to masonry arch bridges, using the well-known Prestwood bridge (Staffordshire, UK) as a benchmark case study. The bridge was modeled using AEM and loaded until collapse simulating the actual conditions of the in situ test carried out in 1986. Results show consistency, in terms of bearing capacity and collapse mechanism, with the experimental data and previous studies that used other numerical approaches, proving the ability of the Applied Element Method to provide an accurate estimate of the collapse behavior of this kind of structures. AEM’s ability to represent collapse mechanisms involving large displacements, at a reduced computational cost, is especially useful for the design of alert and monitoring systems for structures in a damaged or pre-collapse state.

The 3d response of a large-scale masonry arch bridge - part I: Performance under low and medium loading levels

Masonry arch bridges are characterised by three-dimensional (3D) behaviour when subjected to external eccentric loading (e.g., vehicle loads). The arch ring, abutments, backfill and spandrel walls may interact with each other in a complex manner, leading to a 3D mode of response that can have a significant impact on the initiation and propagation of damage. However, there is a dearth of experimental data from tests designed to investigate the 3D behaviour of masonry arch bridges, particularly under loading levels below those required to cause failure. This paper presents results from tests on a large-scale brickwork masonry arch bridge subjected to low- and mid-level static loads under laboratory conditions. Point loads of increasing magnitude were applied at different locations on the top of the backfill in order to investigate 3D response and damage accumulation. Details of the experimental setup, material characterisation, and the results obtained from static and repeated load tests at low- and mid-level load magnitudes are presented herein. Results demonstrate that the bridge exhibited a 3D mode of response under eccentric point loads. Loading at the mid-span resulted in greater deformation of the arch barrel compared to loading at the quarter- and three-quarter-span points, due to the shallower backfill depth over the crown. Under the mid-level loading, stiffness degradation was observed during the testing regime, suggesting an accumulation of damage in the bridge. Moreover, when loading was applied close to a spandrel wall, measurable out-of-plane deformation of the spandrel wall was observed, with this deformation increasing significantly as the load was increased from 150 kN to 250 kN. This results from a combination of increased lateral soil pressure and decreased shear resistance at the arch-spandrel wall interface.

A Framework for Condition Survey and Structural Health Monitoring of Masonry Arch Bridges

Masonry arch bridges are essential elements of the road and railway networks of Europe, as they pertain to cultural heritage and play an important role in transportation. The integrity and safety of these centuries-old structures must be ensured. Therefore, there is great interest in understanding the behavior of masonry arch bridges and monitoring their health. Efficient methods for assessing the condition of structures, including inspections and monitoring, constitute a fundamental element of structural health monitoring (SHM) applications. Given the multitude of surveying techniques available, it becomes crucial to establish cost-effective sensor placement strategies capable of detecting structural failures. These strategies can involve identifying particularly sensitive areas, optimizing the number of sensors used, as well as refining the number and duration of monitoring setups, among other considerations. As part of the PONT3 project, which aims to develop a comprehensive and cost-effective approach to anticipate failure propagation in ageing bridges, this research focusses on developing interoperability-driven inspection and monitoring strategies to provide data that will allow anticipating the evolution of possible failure scenarios. In this regard, an extensive summary of the key characteristics of inspection and monitoring technologies, and typical system configurations in existing literature for masonry arch bridges will be provided. Then, the measurable physical parameters of interest for a specific failure propagation scenario will be identified using numerical simulations and applicable monitoring techniques for each of the physical parameters will be determined. Monitoring requirements in terms of measurement locations, accuracy, range, and temporal resolution will also be identified. The recommendations for interoperability-driven data collection to exchange and employ acquired information for the purpose of structural diagnosis will conclude the framework. The study will finally discuss a future outlook on the development of integrated SHM-oriented digital twins.

ArchIMEDES: Computer Vision Tracking of the Inherent Changes to Structural Stability of Masonry Arch Bridges Resulting from Increased Bed Scour.

Scour-induced failure of masonry arch bridges is a common cause of bridge collapse, especially during extreme flood events. Over recent years there has been a significant increase in the numbers of documented scour induced failures of this bridge stock across Europe and the USA. The extent of the scour can erode the supporting soil or sediment around the bridge piers or abutments, leading to a loss of support for the structure. As the foundation becomes unstable, it can result in settlement or tilting of the bridge, potentially causing structural damage, while the ongoing nature of scour can result in the progressive deterioration of the bridge’s ability to safely transfer load. Traditional hydraulic adjustments, such as streamlining abutments with wing walls and using cutwaters on piers, do not significantly reduce scour depth for masonry arch bridges. This paper presents initial findings of an investigation that links the changes of response in load carrying capacity to the easement of support at the bridge foundation due to scour. Scale experiments on the FlexiArchTM under loading with realistic scour conditions is contributing to the development of an algorithm based on the relationship between the structural response of the FlexiArchTM and prevailing scour conditions. The computer vision-based monitoring package ArchIMEDES, developed as part of the research, will use this algorithm to predict current bridge scour conditions at any given time. This will allow for potential scour development to be identified and investigated before the bridge collapses, ensuring the security and safety of these vital pieces of infrastructure.

Full life-cycle vibration-based monitoring of a full-scale masonry arch bridge with increasing levels of damage

Structural health monitoring (SHM) is of great significance to maintain the safe operation of infrastructure, particularly for historic structures such as masonry arch bridges, as their material properties are deteriorating under effects such as climate change, but the demands of modern transport systems increase significantly. Vibration-based SHM has become a prevalent method for assessing the vulnerability of masonry arch bridges. However, one of the most critical limitations lies in the inability of correlate bridge’s damage accumulation with the variation trends in its modal parameters. To address this issue, in the present study, full life-cycle vibration-based monitoring was conducted on a full-scale masonry arch bridge, progressing from an undamaged state to failure under laboratory conditions. Accumulated damage was induced by applying point loads with increasing magnitudes until the bridge failed. Vibration data, collected after each loading test, were analysed utilizing the stochastic subspace identification (SSI) method, and frequency and damping ratio for the first five modes were identified. The results demonstrated that the first-order frequency had the most pronounced correlation with the stiffness degradation and the damage accumulation in the masonry arch bridge. The evolution of early-stage damage, the formation of the first hinge, and the activation of a four-hinge mechanism were successfully captured through the frequency degradation. The findings of the study may provide valuable insights into the damage assessment of historic masonry arch bridge infrastructures.

Parametric Study on The Geometric Properties of Masonry Stone Bridges with an Arch Carrier System

In this research, computational models of masonry arch bridges were constructed, taking into account distinctive features such as span dimensions, height, and arch thickness, while the arch width was maintained as a constant parameter throughout the modeling process. The finite element analysis software, ANSYS version 16, was utilized to create these computational representations. To evaluate the structural integrity and load-carrying capabilities of these bridges, loading scenarios were applied to both the center section of the bridge and a quarter of the arch span. The analytical methodology adopted for this purpose was static thrust analysis. Subsequently, the study delved into the influence of the geometrical characteristics of the arches on their load-carrying capacity. The findings of this research hold potential utility in guiding and informing the reconstruction of historic bridges that have been completely or partially demolished.

The 3D response of a large-scale masonry arch bridge – Part II: Performance at failure

Masonry arch bridges continue to form a pivotal part of the transport networks of the UK and many other countries worldwide. However, their three-dimensional response (3D) under loading has to date been relatively little investigated. Here, details of a large-scale masonry arch bridge load tested to failure under laboratory conditions are presented. The bridge consisted of a brickwork arch barrel, abutments, spandrel walls, and compacted limestone as backfill material. Patch loading was applied to the surface of the backfill at the quarter and three-quarter span points to assess the failure mechanism, load-carrying capacity, and residual strength of the bridge. A range of sensors were employed to capture the 3D bridge response and ground-penetrating radar surveys were performed on both the virgin and load-tested bridge to compare its internal structure. The observed evolution of cracks and post-test deformed geometry demonstrated the presence of both a localised 3D mode of response in the arch barrel in the vicinity of the applied load and a global four-hinge mechanism. Failure-level load tests carried out first at the quarter span and then at the three-quarter span points showed that the load-carrying capacity of the bridge had reduced by only 10 % in the second test, though the stiffness of the bridge had decreased by around 35 %. During the failure-level load tests, significant in-plane and out-of-plane deformations of the spandrel walls were also observed, adding to the much smaller residual deformations recorded in low- and mid-level load tests.

Pixel-level block classification and crack detection from 3D reconstruction models of masonry structures using convolutional neural networks

Inspection and documentation of masonry structures is a time-consuming and expensive process that heavily relies on an engineer's expertise. This paper introduces a computer vision-based method that automates the creation of classified point clouds from 3D reconstruction models obtained through photogrammetry and/or laser scanning. By leveraging Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) on 3D renders, the proposed methodology can be used to classify structural features (i.e., blocks, mortar, cracks) with greater accuracy and less effort than conventional methods. Moreover, this approach is flexible and can include further classifications by incorporating additional CNN models, allowing broader applications across various materials (i.e., concrete, steel, timber) and defects. Additionally, a precise methodology for accurate crack quantification featuring a manual annotation tool was introduced which was validated using outputs from a full-scale masonry arch bridge test carried out in the laboratory. The results emphasize the robustness of the classification approach and highlight the useful geometric information that can be gained from full-scale masonry structures. The proposed approach has the potential to use image data from UAVs/static cameras and revolutionize the way we document and inspect structures in the future.

Methodology for the Integration of Structural Health Assessment of Masonry Bridges into HBIM

ABSTRACT A methodology is proposed to efficiently develop BIM models of masonry arch bridges, with the objective of generating databases (Level of Information, LoI) associated with 3D geometrical models, incorporating different levels of detail (LoD). The use of parametric libraries is implemented to develop the models. The first step is to perform an experimental campaign to obtain initial data. With these data and the parametric library previously created, a parametric model of the structure is generated (low LoD). A map of the vulnerable areas of the structure is created on this model and the available information is linked to it. A structural model (high LoD) is also created and calibrated. With all this information, an HBIM file is generated. A second experimental campaign is performed on the structure using non-destructive techniques. Point clouds, OMA data, photographs, and visual inspections from the different experimental campaigns are compared to the original HBIM file. In addition, to validate the usefulness of the parametric library, its implementation is carried out on three other historic masonry structures. This comprehensive and technologically advanced approach proves to be a promising strategy for the conservation and sustainable management of architectural heritage.

A lightweight Transformer‐based neural network for large‐scale masonry arch bridge point cloud segmentation

AbstractTransformer architecture based on the attention mechanism achieves impressive results in natural language processing (NLP) tasks. This paper transfers the successful experience to a 3D point cloud segmentation task. Inspired by newly proposed 3D Transformer neural networks, this paper introduces a new Transformer‐based module, which is called Local Geo‐Transformer. To alleviate the heavy memory consumption of the original Transformer, Local Geo‐Transformer only performs the attention mechanism in local regions. It is designed to mitigate the information loss caused by the subsampling of point clouds for segmentation. Global Geo‐Transformer is proposed to exploit the global relationships between features with the lowest resolution. The new architecture is validated on a masonry bridge dataset developed by the authors for their earlier work on a previous segmentation network called BridgeNet. The new version of the network with Transformer architecture, BridgeNetv2, outperforms BridgeNet in all metrics. BridgeNetv2 is also shown to be lightweight and memory efficient, well‐adapted to large‐scale point cloud segmentation tasks in civil engineering.

Development of a Method for Preservation Appraisal of Historic Transportation Structures and Its Application for the Masonry Bridges of Mimar Sinan

Social history is closely related to the history of transportation. Since the establishment of the first settlements, bridges have been fundamental elements along established land routes, providing mobility, accessibility, reliability, safety, and comfort to their users over the many elements that act as obstacles along these routes. Supporting commerce, trade, and unfortunately wars, these bridges were instrumental in the efficient use of time, enhancing the possibilities of development and progress through interaction between the groups of people using them. Although quite variable in type and dimensions, bridges are unique elements of civil engineering. The effort required to construct them was and remains very demanding in the time spent, techniques used, and resources consumed. Before the advances in construction methods beginning with the use of iron and steam engines following the Industrial Revolution, stone masonry arch construction with the use of timber false-works, masonry blocks, masonry piers, and timber piles, mechanisms of pulleys and levers provided the fundamental materials and techniques used to construct lasting bridges. Along the many examples of masonry arch bridges from far back in history, there is a unique group of stone masonry bridges dating back to the 16th century and constructed by a single polymath, Mimar Sinan. This article will investigate the characteristics of the bridges built by Sinan and their evaluation for preservation and implementation in contemporary urban life through a proposed preservation appraisal method.

Novel block element with axial-only deformation for limit analysis of masonry arch bridges

This paper proposes a novel limit analysis block element to model the ring behavior in masonry arch bridges, with consideration of axial deformation induced by both bending and axial compressing motions. The governing formulation is established based on the kinematic theorem. After constructing the velocity field of the block element, the new compatibility condition is put forward, followed by a discussion of possible linearization for the element constitutive model. A new heterogeneous limit analysis formulation that accounts for the deformability of the elements is given at the end. For benchmarking purposes, the collapse of an 80-block arch is first investigated to understand the influence of using different constitutive linearizations. Then, the proposed element is applied to analyze the collapse of a practical bridge involving arch-fill interactions. The results indicate a great necessity of considering the deformability of the ring when analyzing the collapse of masonry arch bridges. Compared with previous experimental results of Prestwood Bridge, employing the rigid modeling for the ring will lead to a significantly overestimated load prediction (about 46.3%) while the proposed deformable brick element with quadrilateral-linearized constitutive can produce a very accurate prediction (bias within 1%). Adoption of the hexagon linearization will give rise to a comparatively inflexible block behavior and the corresponding ring performs analogous to the rigid case. Finally, the model proposed gets over the main shortcoming exhibited by a beam discretization of the ring, namely the potential over-flexibility of the bridge arch, induced by the simplification of the actual geometry.

Quantification of the crack propagation and global failure mechanism of single- and multi-ring masonry arch bridges

This paper presents the development of a novel crack-based damage quantification method to assess the damage accumulation in masonry arch bridges subjected to externally applied loading. Initially, a damage index was proposed, considering the initiation and extension of tensile and sliding cracks. Then, the proposed damage indexing was adopted into a two-dimensional discrete element code of analysis to evaluate single and multi-ring masonry arch bridges. The numerical model was validated by comparing the computational outputs against the experimental results obtained from the literature. Following the validation, masonry arch bridge models were developed, featuring the four most representative bond configurations in arch barrels. Also, different bond properties were assigned to investigate their impact on the global failure characteristics of single- and multi-ring masonry arch bridges. From the analyses of results of the multi-ring masonry arch bridges investigated in this study, it was shown that the rapid growth of tensile cracks in radial joints and the occurrence of shear slippage in circumferential joints between adjacent rings were observed to be early signs for multi-ring bridges before the ultimate load reached. By analysing the correlation between the normalised damage index with the normalised load, damage accumulation in different masonry arch bridges were identified. This study offers a novel perspective on quantitively evaluating the damage accumulation and failure mechanism of masonry arch bridges and the findings may provide valuable insights into the assessment and management of existing masonry arch bridges.

Dynamic monitoring of a masonry arch rail bridge using a distributed fiber optic sensing system

AbstractMasonry arch bridges are an integral part of the European transportation infrastructure. Regular inspections are critical to ensure the safe operation of these bridges and also to preserve historical heritage. Despite recent advancements in assessment techniques, monitoring masonry arch bridges remains a difficult and important research topic. This paper describes a proof-of-concept study carried out on a masonry arch rail bridge in Gavirate, Italy, to investigate the dynamic responses of the bridge to train-induced moving loads. The dynamic measurements are obtained by a distributed fiber optic sensing system that enables a novel inspection of the integrity of masonry arch bridges. The focus of this field study is to quantify the dynamic strain induced by train moving loads and reveal the masonry arch bridge’s dynamic behaviors through the use of an innovative distributed fiber optical sensing-based technique. The results may provide a useful guideline for the application of distributed fiber optical sensing to monitoring masonry arch bridges.