Masculine Norms Research Articles

Disposable Bodies

This article examines figures of disability in the poetry of D. M. Aderibigbe to illuminate the fate of disabled Nigerians. It considers the connections between disability and social norms, showing how normative masculinity is implicated in the killings of persons with disabilities. It draws on Chielozona Eze’s discussion of disability and Judith Butler’s concept of grievability to analyze Aderibigbe’s critique of normative culture, while situating the analysis of his poetry within the critical scholarship on disability, gender, masculinities, and social justice. In the poems “Olumo’s Face” and “Ode to My Father’s Childhood,” Aderibigbe represents disabled bodies as disposable, which underscores the need to continue advocating for disability justice.

Removing the Binary: An Exploration on the Impact Language has on Our Gender Perception

Language, as a reflection of societal values and beliefs, wields the power to shape perceptions of gender, often perpetuating a binary understanding through grammatical gender systems. The influence of the generic masculine and masculine norm within languages with dense grammatical gender reinforces this binary, marginalizing communities and centralizing power within the masculine form. Despite these challenges, endeavours towards gender neutrality within grammatical gender languages offer hope, particularly in their potential to benefit marginalized groups like the LGBTQ+ community. However, while recent advancements demonstrate potential for gender neutrality within language, the possibility of achieving a genuine ‘gender-free’ language remains a question, especially within grammatical gender languages and beyond. In order to begin answering this question, one needs to understand the concept of ‘gendered language’ and how it has impacted our perception of gender throughout history. It is also necessary to analyse how recent linguistic adjustments impact the LGBTQ+ community and the changes in attitudes towards non-binary spaces. By comparing attitudes towards gender in grammatical gender and genderless languages, we gain insight into the intricate relationship between language and societal norms. To do that one needs to look at the contemporary languages such as English, Spanish and Swedish, which are undergoing gender-neutral adaptations within the core lexicon and grammar. In addition to indigenous languages that have historically included a form of gender neutral language. In essence, this examination of language and gender dynamics offers the conclusion that it is possible to remove gender from language, yet cannot change the impact that gendered language has already had on society’s perception of gender.

“I Feel More Masculine Having Sex with a Woman Than Being Fucked by a Man”: Masculinity and Bisexual Men's Experiences of Sex with Women and Men

ABSTRACT Prior research with heterosexual and gay men suggests that heteronormative, hegemonic masculine norms influence sexual behaviors, including in relation to sexual health, and in sex between men, positioning in anal intercourse. This qualitative study offers an in-depth account of how bisexual men’s beliefs about masculinity and about the gendered nature of certain sexual behaviors may influence their experiences of sex with women and men, and the sexual practices they engage in. Twenty-two bisexual men participated in one-to-one, semi-structured interviews, where they were asked about their experiences of sex with women and men in relation to their beliefs about masculinity. A reflexive thematic analysis identified the influence of prevailing discourses of heteronormativity and hegemonic masculinity on sexual experiences and behaviors. Participants’ beliefs about masculinity and the gendered nature of certain aspects of sex influenced experiences relating to sexual performance, sexual assertiveness, positions adopted, practices engaged in, and how gender was enacted in sexual encounters. Sex with women was experienced as more masculine than sex with men: Participants described feeling more sexually assertive than their sexual partners, in control of the encounter, and responsible for facilitating their partners’ sexual pleasure. Sex with men was experienced as more egalitarian and provided favorable opportunities to relinquish sexual control and responsibilities around facilitating pleasure, and to feel less masculine, including by engaging in receptive anal intercourse. Findings therefore indicate that, for some bisexual men, masculinity is highly salient, influencing a range of sexual behaviors and experiences in sex with women and with men.

Cultivating a culture of intervention: Bystander programs and the prevention of sexual violence

This systematic review examines the effectiveness of bystander intervention programs in preventing sexual violence, with a focus on the role of masculinity and cultural factors. The review synthesizes findings from six studies, employing a mixed-methods approach to analyze quantitative and qualitative data. The results highlight the significance of bystander intervention in preventing sexual violence, particularly among young people. The studies demonstrate that programs targeting men and boys, addressing traditional masculinity norms, and promoting empathy and prosocial behavior are effective in reducing sexual violence. Cultural factors, such as social norms and community engagement, also play a crucial role in shaping bystander behavior. The review concludes that bystander intervention programs have the potential to create a culture of empathy and action, but require careful consideration of cultural context and nuances. The findings have implications for the development of effective prevention strategies and highlight the need for further research in this area. By understanding the complexities of bystander behavior, we can work towards creating safer and more supportive communities for all individuals.

Complexities and Possibilities of Strengthening the Social Inclusion of Military Women in the Netherlands Armed Forces: Findings From an Action Research Project

The social inclusion of military women is negatively affected by dominant masculine norms. Often, military organizations try to promote inclusion through top-down policies. However, little is known about solutions military personnel themselves propose, and what is needed to implement those. Drawing on an action research project in the Netherlands Armed Forces, we identify four systemic collaborative requirements to implement initiatives aimed at improving inclusion: (a) awareness and recognition of women’s (negative) experiences, (b) a safe environment for dialogue and joint ownership, (c) organizational trust, support and mandate, and (d) the implementation of interventions in the organizational structure. We discuss two paradoxes we identified (a) addressing inclusion in unsafe workplaces requires safety and (b) creating awareness about women’s social inclusion without putting women in the spotlight. Our results show that a dialogic and collaborative approach is promising, especially to address the complexities that arise when trying to strengthen inclusion.

Men's Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors and Conformity to Masculine Norms: A Person-Centered, Latent Profile Approach

BackgroundMen are up to four times more likely to die by suicide than women. At the same time, men are less likely to disclose suicidal ideation and transition more rapidly from ideation to attempt. Recently, socialized gender norms and particularly conformity to masculine norms (CMN) have been discussed as driving factors for men’s increased risk for suicidal thoughts and behaviors (STBs). This study aims to examine the individual interplay between CMN dimensions and their association with depression symptoms, help-seeking, and STBs. MethodsUsing data from an anonymous online survey of 488 cisgender men, latent profile analysis was performed to identify CMN subgroups. Multigroup comparisons and hierarchical regression analyses were used to estimate differences in sociodemographic characteristics, depression symptoms, psychotherapy use, and STBs. ResultsThree latent CMN subgroups were identified: Egalitarians (58.6%; characterized by overall low CMN), Players (16.0%; characterized by patriarchal beliefs, endorsement of sexual promiscuity, and heterosexual self-presentation), and Stoics (25.4%; characterized by restrictive emotionality, self-reliance, and engagement in risky behavior). Stoics showed a 2.32 times higher risk for a lifetime suicide attempt, younger age, stronger somatization of depression symptoms, and stronger unbearability beliefs. ConclusionThe interplay between the CMN dimensions restrictive emotionality, self-reliance, and willingness to engage in risky behavior, paired with suicidal beliefs about the unbearability of emotional pain, may create a suicidogenic psychosocial system. Acknowledging this high-risk subgroup of men conforming to restrictive masculine norms may aid the development of tailored intervention programs, ultimately mitigating the risk for a suicide attempt.

Male circumcision perceptions among HIV vaccine trial participants in Soweto: Qualitative study

Background: Male circumcision has health benefits and cultural significance in South Africa and elsewhere. We sought to understand perceptions about male circumcision among participants enrolled in a preventive human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) vaccine efficacy trial in South Africa.Methods: We conducted a qualitative study with 28 consenting people aged 18–35 years old who self-reported that they were not living with HIV and who were participating in the HIV Vaccine Trials Network (HVTN) 702 vaccine efficacy trial in Soweto. Using a semi-structured guide, we facilitated four focus group discussions (FGDs) stratified by age, gender and sexual orientation. Focus group discussions were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, translated into English and thematically analysed.Results: Four main themes emerged: (1) accurate knowledge about what male circumcision is, with some participants stating that it partially reduces acquisition of HIV and sexually transmitted infections; (2) emerging distrust of cultural circumcision because of perceived lack of transparency and adverse events; (3) misperceptions that circumcision boosted masculinity and (4) the influenced of parents, family and female partners in circumcision decision-making.Conclusion: Young South African HIV vaccine trial participants accurately understand the HIV prevention benefits of male circumcision, but uptake decisions are embedded within a context informed by culture, sexuality, masculinity norms and values and the influence of women.Contribution: In this study, we showed that young South Africans participating in HIV vaccine trials instead embed their circumcision uptake decisions within a context informed by culture, sexuality and masculinity norms and values and influence of women.

Gender bias in assessing narcissistic personality: Exploring the utility of the ICD-11 dimensional model.

Narcissistic personality disorder as captured in categorical diagnostic systems (e.g., DSM-5) emphasizes grandiose features more associated with masculine norms and under-emphasizes vulnerable features more associated with femininity. This poses significant implications in diagnostic outcome and clinical treatment in women with narcissistic preoccupations. Research finds that clinicians using the DSM-5 categorical system tend to diagnose vulnerable narcissism in women as other 'feminized' personality disorders (e.g., borderline), but no research has explored gender differences in narcissism using the new ICD-11 dimensional framework for personality disorders. This study investigated the clinical utility of the ICD-11 approach in capturing gender differences in narcissistic presentations. Adopting an online vignette-based study, mental health clinicians (N = 157; 71.3% female) completed ratings of ICD-11 personality disorder severity and trait domains for two cases reflecting 'grandiose' and 'vulnerable' narcissism in hypothetical male or female patients. The results showed that ratings of core impairments in personality functioning and overall severity were consistent irrespective of patient or clinician gender, contrasting prior research using categorical models. While some differences were observed in trait domain (e.g., negative affectivity) between patient gender, these results suggest the clinical utility of the ICD-11 model as emphasizing elements of personality functioning in the process of assessment and diagnosis, therefore potentially being less susceptible to influences of gender stereotype in aiding clinical conceptualization.

Men’s use of cosmetic surgery and the role of traditional masculinity ideologies

In western countries, men are increasingly using cosmetic surgery. However, despite this trend, there remains a dearth of information on the prevalence, acceptance, and motivations behind men’s use of cosmetic surgery. Furthermore, the potential association between men’s use of cosmetic surgery and in particular male-specific cosmetic surgery procedures such as head hair transplant or penis enlargement and traditional masculinity ideologies (TMI) has not been investigated so far. For this purpose, a cross-sectional anonymous online survey was conducted among 241 self-identifying men aged 18 years or older from the German-speaking part of Europe. Participants responded to questions about cosmetic surgery use and experiences, and completed the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory—Short Form (CMNI-SF) and the Male Role Norms Inventory—Short Form (MRNI-SF) questionnaires to assess conformity with and endorsement of TMI. Of the 241 men investigated, 47 (19.5%) had undergone cosmetic surgery. The most common types of cosmetic surgeries reported were wrinkle treatment, eyelid correction, and head-hair transplant. Penis enlargement procedures were reported by three (6.4%) of the 47 men who had undergone cosmetic surgery. The main reasons for undergoing surgery were to feel better (72.3%) and look better (55.3%), while to increase sexual success (17.0%) and to increase manliness (14.9%) were also reported. Logistic regression models showed that higher conformity to TMI (CMNI-SF) was associated with higher odds of having undergone cosmetic surgery. The results highlight the overall increase in men’s cosmetic surgery use and its specific characteristics. The significant positive association between conformity to TMI and men’s use of cosmetic surgery suggests that men increasingly use cosmetic surgery as a means to assert power, success, dominance, and sexual success.

How Masculinity Impedes African American Men From Seeking Mental Health Treatment.

This study addresses the pronounced mental health disparities faced by African American men, characterized by the heightened severity of mental health conditions and their reluctance to seek mental health treatment. Persistent neglect toward the mental health of African American men perpetuates systemic inequities and heightens the stigma surrounding mental well-being within their communities. This study investigates the interaction of masculinity, distrust in doctors, and parental support on attitudes influencing African American men's reluctance to seek mental health care. A survey administered to 74 African American men revealed a negative correlation between masculinity and attitudes toward seeking mental health treatment. In contrast, no significant correlations were found between distrust in doctors and parental support on attitudes toward seeking mental health treatment. These findings were analyzed using Pearson's correlation, underscoring the urgent need to address masculine norms in mental health discourse among African American men. Implications of the findings and future directions for masculinity in African American men are discussed.

“Saying Something Would Be Useless”: Reconsidering Relational Dialectics Theory by Examining How Chinese Women Entrepreneurs Negotiate Gendered Entrepreneurship and Family Harmony

ABSTRACT The identity of women entrepreneurs illuminates discursive struggles given the masculine norms of entrepreneurship. Applying relational dialectics theory (RDT), this study explored competing discourses surrounding understudied Chinese women entrepreneurs and the interplay of their identification and masculine discourses. I conducted narrative interviews with 34 Chinese women. Contrapuntal analysis of this non-Western data however identified that discursive struggles happened when voicing/speaking/expressing was not prioritized. Hence, I turned to new materialist perspectives to (re)work discourses as boundary-making practices producing local things/beings-in-relations and agents as anyone/anything participating in the dynamism. In two themes as competing discourses (discourses of misalignment vs. legitimacy), I focused on local movements and interferences when/where women in their entrepreneurial becoming encountered various human and nonhuman agents, and therefore demonstrated how discursive struggles involved various bodies/things, more than just talk/voices. Ultimately, this study diffracted RDT by engaging with new materialisms and proposing a new uttered-embodied dimension of discursive struggles.

Negotiating Masculinity and Cultural Identity in Americanah: An Analysis of Hegemonic Norms in Nigerian Diaspora Literature

This article delves into the presentation of masculinity and cultural identity in diaspora literature, honing in on Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie's Americanah. The study seeks to understand how cultural expectations and power dynamics contribute to the construction of masculinity within Nigerian diasporic communities, utilizing Connell's theory of hegemonic masculinity. Furthermore, it seeks to examine the impact of cultural fusion on the development of masculinity and cultural identity in male main characters in the chosen novel and to investigate how the intersections of race, gender, and immigrant background converge to influence the formation of masculinity in Americanah. Through a thorough examination of the male characters, the research delves into their engagements with dominant norms while striving to establish their sense of self and connection. The primary discoveries underscore the complex interplay among race, gender, and the immigrant background in moulding not only personal but also communal identities. The investigation pinpoints occurrences of defiance and rebellion against the prevailing masculine norms, while also exploring the potential for cultural amalgamation to redefine conventional ideas of masculinity. This scholarly inquiry enriches the comprehension of the intricate dynamics surrounding masculinity and cultural identification, providing valuable perspectives on the nuances of diasporic encounters and their influence on identity formation within diasporic literary works. In addition, this learned analysis creates opportunities for more inquiries into the relationships among sex, ethnicity, and individuality in contemporary literature, ultimately propelling the awareness of different plots within migrant communities.

Conformity to masculine norms and its association with drinking behaviors and alcohol-related consequences among adult men: A meta-analysis

ObjectivesStudies typically show that men are at higher risk for heavy alcohol use than women. Research linking conformity to masculine norms and drinking behaviors among adult males has grown steadily during the past 10 years. We conducted the first meta-analysis that examines (a) the strength of the associations between conformity to masculine norms and alcohol use outcomes, and (b) the extent to which the strength of these associations would be affected by the specific type of drinking behavior or methodological factors. MethodsWe included 35 studies (N=32,412) in this meta-analysis that examined the association between scores on the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI) and alcohol use outcomes. ResultsAcross all studies, the average correlation between conformity to masculine norms and alcohol variables was small (r = 0.17). The associations between conformity to masculine norms and specific alcohol variables were also modest: alcohol use composite score of frequency and quantity (r = 0.20), binge drinking frequency (r = 0.14), and alcohol-related consequences (r = 0.16). The mean correlation between each CMNI subscale and alcohol variables was also small (alcohol use composite, rs range from 0.07 to 0.22; alcohol-related consequences, rs range from 0.04 to 0.29; frequency of binge drinking, rs range from −0.06 to 0.22). There was a significant difference in effect size by specific type of drinking behavior (i.e., effect sizes for binge drinking were smaller than effect sizes for other alcohol variables). Methodological factors (i.e., CMNI version; sample type: university vs. adult vs. mixed samples; country where the study was conducted) did not affect the associations between masculine norms and the alcohol-outcome variables. ConclusionsConformity to masculine norms is modestly associated with drinking behaviors and alcohol-related consequences. The effect sizes reported in this meta-analysis can assist in power analyses in future studies on conformity to masculine norms and specific drinking behaviors among adult males.

Living the liquid life: Gender, precarity, and journalism in the post-#metoo era

Abstract Despite a long-standing trend of increasing women in the profession, masculine norms and gender inequality persist in media work. During the #metoo movement, Swedish journalists launched the #deadline campaign, shedding light on the connection between gender and worsening working conditions. Increasing demands for flexibility have institutionalised temporary contracts, eroded job security, and expanded job precarity, with women and young journalists disproportionately affected. In this article, we explore gendered journalistic precarity and systemic inequalities, challenging the assumption of professional homogeneity in the field of journalism. We conducted 23 interviews with Swedish journalists on temporary contracts, applying a feminist analysis to understand how power dynamics affect their experiences. Five years post #metoo, gender issues have faded from professional discourse. However, the interviews reveal continued gender discrimination and harassment, exacerbated by factors such as age, class, and position in the labour market.

A Disinterment of Hushed Male-Gendered Experiences: A Study of Festus Iyayi’s Violence

This research delves into the often-silenced tribulations, struggles, and internal conflicts faced by men which remain concealed due to prevailing masculinity norms. The study critically examines the nuanced portrayal of male struggles within the cultural and traditional context of Nigeria, as depicted in the novel, Violence by Festus Iyayi. Through a meticulous application of gender normativity theory, within qualitative research framework, the work unveils the complex layers of male experiences that are typically muted by societal expectations. It interrogates the intricate dynamics of gender roles, shedding light on the silent battles against emotional repression and the quest for identity amidst rigid masculine archetypes, through an examination of the male characters experiences as depicted by the author. The research finds that societal, cultural and traditional expectations, and stereotypes placed on men contribute to their silent battles and affects their mental health in diverse ways, therefore, this study calls for relaxed and flexible male gender norms. This analysis not only contributes to a deeper understanding of male psychosocial challenges but also calls for a re-evaluation of gender constructs that dictate emotional expression and resilience.

Fear and Masculinity as Motivational Narratives for Knife-Related Crime: A Systematic Review of the Literature.

Males are routinely identified as both the victims and perpetrators of knife-related crime. Explanations have typically fallen into two categories: fear of further victimization (i.e., need for protection) and masculine gender norms (e.g., a display of "toughness"). However, these two works of literature have not yet been brought together to provide us with a fruitful theoretical understanding of why some young men engage in knife-related crime. The purpose of this systematic review is to consolidate and synthesize the available research on fear and masculinity as explanations for knife-related crime. In all, 23 studies were identified as meeting the inclusion criteria. The findings of the studies reviewed highlight the importance of considering the cognitive analysis of risk and perceptions of risk in young males' decisions to engage in knife-related crime. These perceptions of risk are shaped by previous victimization through a contagion effect and contribute to the development of an aggressive masculinity that justifies the behavior. However, it is not very well understood the role of fear contagion, and victimization in the shaping of masculine ideals within groups of young men involved in knife-related crimes. Additional research is needed to explore these findings and shed light on the complex interplay between these factors to inform viable treatment options for young men engaged in knife-related crime.

Exploring the Social Exchange of Manhood and Masculine Norms Among Black Heterosexual College Men

ABSTRACT Traditional masculine norms state men are tough, protective, and sexually assertive. Young Black men must weigh the rewards and costs of adhering to or deviating from these norms within the college environment, as their choices can be detrimental to their health. Using the ecological-exchange framework, we examined adherence to or deviation from traditional masculine norms from focus groups with 13 Black heterosexual men at two Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) and one Minority-Serving Institution. Participants formed their masculinity through experiences with male role models and mothers but felt conflicted in their need to adhere to or deviate from norms. This reflects the processes men go through to develop their masculinity and highlights needed interventions focused on cultivating healthy masculinity.

Gender and stigma in antiretroviral treatment adherence in Mozambique: A qualitative study.

Both gender and HIV stigma are known to contribute to poor retention to antiretroviral therapy (ART), but little is known how they interact in decisions about adherence or default by people living with HIV (PLWH). This qualitative study explored HIV stigma and gender interaction in PLWH's care decisions in Mozambique. Transcribed data from semi-structured interviews of 68 men and 71 women living with HIV, were coded and analyzed for themes of HIV stigma, gender norms and treatment continuation and interruption pathways, using both deductive and inductive coding approaches. Stigma experiences were found to be influenced by gender roles. Anticipation of stigma was common across the narratives of PLWH, while women had more experiences of enacted stigma, particularly by their intimate partners. Women's treatment interruptions were influenced by fear of partner's negative reaction. Men's narratives showed internalized stigma and delayed treatment due to anticipated stigma and masculine norm of strength. Severe internalized stigma was found among single mothers, who without economic or moral support defaulted treatment. Women's pathway to adherence was facilitated by their caregiver role and support from partner or kin family. Men's adherence was facilitated by experience of severe symptoms, provider role and by support from their mother or partner. Results indicate that linkage of stigma to gender roles interact in treatment decisions in three main ways. First, HIV stigma and unequal gender norms can work jointly as a barrier to adherence. Secondly, those resisting restrictive gender norms found it easier to manage HIV stigma for the benefit of treatment adherence. Thirdly, some gender norms also facilitated adherence and stigma management. Programs targeted at HIV stigma reduction and improving ART adherence among heterosexual populations should be built on an understanding of the local gender norms and include socially and culturally relevant gender sensitive and transformative activities.

Virtual football violence: exploring the resurgence of football’s deviant leisure cultures in England

ABSTRACT This paper examines the resurgence of deviant leisure cultures in football, with a focus on virtual football violence. Despite advancements in curbing violence in UK football stadiums, new challenges emerge online. By analysing social media discourse from three English Premier League matches in 2022, the study reveals the prevalence of several forms of virtual violence, including threats of physical and sexual violence, emotional violence, and discriminatory violence. The research highlights the resurgence of ‘traditional’ norms of masculinity, aggression, and misogyny facilitated by anonymity in online spaces. Paradoxically, the results show that fans engage in derogatory language while simultaneously condemning similar actions by others. This phenomenon is particularly evident in the category of discriminatory violence, where comments are frequently challenged, indicating a ‘raising of consciousness’ and a growing intolerance to certain forms of discriminatory language. However, despite some evidence of social consciousness and pushback against discriminatory language, the prevalence of virtual violence remains concerning on multiple levels. This underscores the need for continued efforts to promote respectful discourse and foster inclusive environments online.

HIV and gender identity expression among transfeminine people in the Western Cape, South Africa – a thematic analysis of data from the HPTN 071 (PopART) trial

IntroductionTransfeminine people in South Africa have a high HIV risk due to structural, behavioural, and psychosocial factors. Transfeminine people and feminine identifying men who have sex with men (MSM) are often conflated or grouped with transgender or MSM categories in HIV service programming, although they don’t necessarily identify as either. We aimed to investigate gender expression among feminine identifying people who were assigned male at birth. We examined how local conceptualizations of sexuality and gender intersect with the key population label of ‘transgender’ imported into local HIV programming.MethodsA qualitative cohort nested within the HPTN 071 (PopART) trial included longitudinal, in-depth interviews with eight transfeminine people (four who disclosed as living with HIV). Data were collected approximately every six weeks between January 2016 and October 2017. We used a combination of thematic analysis and case study descriptions to explore gender identification among participants.ResultsOf the eight participants, only one accepted ‘transgender’ as a label, and even she used varying terms at different times to describe her identity. For participants, a feminine identity included dressing in normatively feminine clothes; using feminine terms, pronouns and names; and adopting stereotypically feminine mannerisms. Participants would switch between typically feminine and masculine norms in response to contextual cues and audience. For example, some participants accepted identification as masculine gay men amongst their family members. Among peers, they expressed their identity through typically more effeminate gender characteristics, for example self-identifying as “femgay”. With partners they often also took on a feminine identity role, for example identifying as women in sexual and romantic relationships (meaning they viewed and expressed themselves as the feminine partner in the relationship).ConclusionsOur findings are amongst the first exploratory and descriptive data of transfeminine people in South Africa. We show how transfeminine people navigate fluid gender identities that could pose a challenge for accessing and utilizing HIV services that are currently set up for transgender individuals or MSM. More work needs to be done to understand and respond to the diverse and shifting ways people experience their gender identities in this high HIV burden context.