Masculine Language Research Articles

Exploring Gender and Homicide: Insights from Turkish Media Professionals of Generations X, Y, and Z

This study examines how media professionals interpret homicides committed in Turkey and depict murder suspects. The article aims to analyse how journalists from different generations respond to, negotiate and resist the editorial ideology that frames gender-based violence from an anti-feminist perspective. The study includes in-depth interviews with nine media professionals from X, Y, and Z generations and forms conclusions about the helplessness of women, the necessity of murder, involving the female suspect. The study reveals that media professionals reproduce gender roles by employing masculine language, and their commitment to “so-called” objective journalism restricts the critical examination and analysis of facts from a feminist perspective. The study demonstrates that journalists, whether consciously or unconsciously, contribute to the dissemination of manipulated messages by reproducing them without conducting thorough analysis. The perspectives of Gen X, Y, and Z Turkish media professionals on gender and murder provide valuable insights into evolving societal attitudes and media representation. It is crucial for journalists and media professionals to critically analyse their biases and strive for fair, inclusive, and responsible reporting that promotes gender equality and challenges harmful stereotypes.

Feminen Characterization of The God

This study investigates how monotheistic religions depict God with masculine or feminine attributes, considering historical context. The issue arises from questioning the portrayal of a masculine God within these religions, influenced by a patriarchal socio-cultural backdrop. Instances mainly from Christianity and lesser from Judaism and Islam, the study analyzes the characteristics of religious theological language used in the depiction of God. In this context, we explore the linguistic challenge encountered by religious traditions when employing anthropomorphic language. Since the core issue revolves around expressing and labeling the divine, the paper initiates with a conceptual examination of God’s characterization as either masculine or feminine. In this analysis, tracing back historically, archaeological and anthropological evidence indicates that language used to describe God was initially predominantly feminine. Feminist perspectives contend that over time, particularly within monotheistic religions, this language has become masculine and that this historical shift has been a major factor in the social and cultural exclusion of women. Against this claim, the study aims to substantiate the claim that despite the effective historical dominance of the theological masculine language, the feminine divine image persists in both theistic and non-theistic traditions. Both the Holy Scriptures and early theological writings occasionally employ feminine language when discussing God, although less frequently than masculine language. Within this context, anthropomorphic depictions of God in the Holy Books of monotheistic religions—where God is perceived as an immaterial being—are interpreted metaphorically, analogically, or symbolically. In particular, the mystical traditions of these religions have emphasized feminine qualities more intensely in their depiction of the divine. They portray God not only as a father or male figure but also with feminine attributes, such as a mother, lover, or friend. These traditions contend that qualities like divine beauty and mercy find their fullest expression in women and the feminine manifestation of existence. Notably, the Nag Hammadi tradition, rooted in Jewish mysticism, highlights the feminine dimensions of the divine, emphasizing love and compassion. Medieval Christian mystics such as Meister Eckhart and Julian of Norwich also emphasized the feminine dimension of God in their experience of the divine. Similarly, within Islamic Sufism, influenced by the Our’an’s balance and harmony of tanzih(exoneratin God from human attributes) and tashbih (drawing similitude) the Ibn Arabi tradition, emphasizing the feminine portrayal of the divine. They recognized the divine presence within the feminine elements of creation. Additionally, a lesser-known figure, Molla al-Jaziri, dealt extensively with the theme of woman as a divine mirror. This study aimed aligns with the feminist theological approach, advocating for the reinterpretation of theological and religious language in order to liberate it from the dominance of a patriarchal language and reveal its feminine aspect. Additionally, study also suggests further research by examining specific time periods, approaches and individual scholars’ perspectives.

Feminine Characterization of The God

This study investigates how monotheistic religions depict God with masculine or feminine attributes, considering historical context. The issue arises from questioning the portrayal of a masculine God within these religions, influenced by a patriarchal socio-cultural backdrop. Instances mainly from Christianity and lesser from Judaism and Islam, the study analyzes the characteristics of religious theological language used in the depiction of God. In this context, we explore the linguistic challenge encountered by religious traditions when employing anthropomorphic language. Since the core issue revolves around expressing and labeling the divine, the paper initiates with a conceptual examination of God’s characterization as either masculine or feminine. In this analysis, tracing back historically, archaeological and anthropological evidence indicates that language used to describe God was initially predominantly feminine. Feminist perspectives contend that over time, particularly within monotheistic religions, this language has become masculine and that this historical shift has been a major factor in the social and cultural exclusion of women. Against this claim, the study aims to substantiate the claim that despite the effective historical dominance of the theological masculine language, the feminine divine image persists in both theistic and non-theistic traditions. Both the Holy Scriptures and early theological writings occasionally employ feminine language when discussing God, although less frequently than masculine language. Within this context, anthropomorphic depictions of God in the Holy Books of monotheistic religions—where God is perceived as an immaterial being—are interpreted metaphorically, analogically, or symbolically. In particular, the mystical traditions of these religions have emphasized feminine qualities more intensely in their depiction of the divine. They portray God not only as a father or male figure but also with feminine attributes, such as a mother, lover, or friend. These traditions contend that qualities like divine beauty and mercy find their fullest expression in women and the feminine manifestation of existence. Notably, the Nag Hammadi tradition, rooted in Jewish mysticism, highlights the feminine dimensions of the divine, emphasizing love and compassion. Medieval Christian mystics such as Meister Eckhart and Julian of Norwich also emphasized the feminine dimension of God in their experience of the divine. Similarly, within Islamic Sufism, influenced by the Our’an’s balance and harmony of tanzih(exoneratin God from human attributes) and tashbih (drawing similitude) the Ibn Arabi tradition, emphasizing the feminine portrayal of the divine. They recognized the divine presence within the feminine elements of creation. Additionally, a lesser-known figure, Molla al-Jaziri, dealt extensively with the theme of woman as a divine mirror. This study aimed aligns with the feminist theological approach, advocating for the reinterpretation of theological and religious language in order to liberate it from the dominance of a patriarchal language and reveal its feminine aspect. Additionally, study also suggests further research by examining specific time periods, approaches and individual scholars’ perspectives.

Are women entrepreneurs more androgynous than men entrepreneurs? A comparative content analysis of language used by Shark Tank India Judges

ABSTRACT Despite a significant increase in the number of women entrepreneurs in India, it remains a gendered profession. In this study, we aim to re-examine gender dynamics in entrepreneurship by using language as an interpretative tool to assess entrepreneurs’ psychological characteristics – motives, values, and linguistic styles. There has been a lack of academic research that focuses on successful women entrepreneurs. To address this, we specifically focused on seven entrepreneurs, who appeared as judges on Shark Tank India, Season One. Using computer-aided text analysis (LIWC software), we content-analysed 571 Tweets, 328 LinkedIn posts, and 13 media interaction videos (total 436:38 minutes), resulting in 912 individual observations. Results showed evidence of gender maturity in entrepreneurship, suggesting that women entrepreneurs had androgynous stable dispositions of both masculine and feminine characteristics. However, analysis of the media interactions showed that women entrepreneurs are significantly higher on affiliation motive as compared to their counterparts. This paradoxical situation validates the socio-cultural embeddedness where the perceptive portrayal of Indian women entrepreneurs as communal continues to be rooted in deep gender-bias. Interestingly, in terms of language usage, we found that women employed more masculine language than men, facilitating their entry and acceptance in a male-dominated profession.

Seeking a “Supportive” Leader: Gendered language in leadership job postings and women’s leadership identification

Evidence suggests that women are underrepresented in leadership positions in Canada (MacDougall et al., 2021). While past research has shown that masculine wording reduces job attractiveness for women, few scholars have examined the effect of gendered language in a leadership context. First, we conducted a directed content analysis to assess the prevalence of gendered language in existing Canadian leadership job postings. This revealed that gendered language exists in job postings at expected levels, with masculine language occurring more frequently, especially in male-dominated industries. Second, we explored how gendered language impacts women’s intentions to apply for leadership positions and the potential roles of stereotype threat and perceived self-efficacy. Results indicated that, for women with lower self-efficacy, feminine language in job advertisements leads to greater application intentions through its effect on leadership identification. These findings suggest that more inclusive, feminine language in leadership job advertisements may encourage more women to apply

Sexual Harassment, Gender-Based Discrimination and Mobbing in Newsrooms: Qualitative In-Depth Interviews with Women Journalists in Turkish Media

This study examines the experiences of women journalists working within the highly patriarchal media industry in Türkiye, which is facing an increase in femicide and gender-based violence. Through in-depth interviews with 12 women journalists working in the industry, this study aims to give voice to women journalists who are subject to discrimination and harassment in newsrooms across Türkiye. The interviews were conducted with journalists aged between 24 and 52, all of whom are based in the three largest cities İstanbul, Ankara, and İzmir. In addition, the journalists are currently working in some of the highly popular media outlets. The findings of the thematic analysis indicate that female journalists encounter a range of challenges within the media industry. These challenges include but are not limited to sexual harassment, glass ceiling, discrimination, mobbing, wage inequality, fighting against masculine language in the newsroom, and peer bullying. The results reveal that these issues persist across a variety of categories, highlighting the prevalence of gender discrimination within the media industry. In summary, the study demonstrates that women journalists face a complex array of challenges that require concerted efforts to address and overcome.

Metaphors and masculine language as breaking female stereotypes in dangdut songs lyrics with vulgar content

Masculine refers to a specific construction of masculinity that is targeted towards men. Men do not inherently possess masculine traits; instead, masculinity is moulded by cultural influences. The association of masculinity with gender stereotypes in Indonesia arises from a subjective misunderstanding of the qualities of a particular group. Song lyrics containing explicit content, particularly those portraying women in derogatory or overly sexualised ways, might contribute to the establishment and perpetuation of detrimental gender stereotypes. The objective of this study is to examine the manifestation of masculinity in the explicit lyrics of dangdut songs and explore their potential to challenge gender stereotypes associated with women. This study uses a content analysis methodology to deconstruct the symbolic significance of masculine language in music lyrics. Data is collected with songs picked based on three factors (kind of music, song words, and song aspect). The music included are dangdut songs, specifically the three most widely circulated songs in 2023. The selected song lyrics consist of words, phrases, and sentences employed in a vulgar manner. The utilised aspects pertain to masculine attributes, gender-based archetypes, explicit content in song lyrics, and metaphoric expressions. Data analysis procedures carried out using qualitative data analysis approaches might include flexibility. Dangdut employs explicit content as a means of challenging gender norms using a qualitative descriptive method. The research findings indicate that the filthy dangdut songs titled "Ngidam Pentol," "Becekin Adek Bang," and "Jagung Rebus" exhibit different expressions of feminine masculinity. These expressions can be observed through the symbolic significance of the song lyrics, specifically in the form of sulking due to unfulfilled ambitions. Women engage in sexual activity with males, therefore challenging the idea that women are meek, courteous, and well-behaved.

The Linguistic Representation of Women in Hayao Miyazaki's Movies

In this paper, I will explore the concept of 'yakuwarigo' in Japanese language and present text analysis of three female characters, Eboshi, Rin and Yubaba from two anime movies of Hayao Miyazaki (Princess Mononoke, Spirited Away). My aim is to demonstrate how the well-known director employs role language, particularly masculine language, to empower his female characters to take on prominent roles in a society where men traditionally hold dominance. In terms of film analysis, Miyazaki places his female characters in the public sphere, making them active participants in the storyline while consistently defying traditional Japanese feminine conventions. This study is closely tied to the field of gender linguistics and linguistic ideology from an analytical perspective, aiming to illustrate how Miyazaki's female characters diverge from linguistic norms in their dialogues.

Press Releases, Politics, and Gendered Language Frames: An Analysis of Governor Michelle Lujan Grisham During the COVID-19 Pandemic

This study takes a case study approach to conduct a frame analysis of the press releases sent out by the Governor of New Mexico, Michelle Lujan Grisham, during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study argues that the governor saliently employed feminine language frames in her press releases while using masculine language frames sparingly in a feminine way, which I attribute to the context of the pandemic as well as the culture of her state. The findings are relevant considering the changing political climate and the then-novel nature of the pandemic. I also discuss the broader implications of the results on health crisis communication.

Pend-nâme-i Attâr’ın Türkçe Şerhlerinde Kadına Bakış Açısı ve Eril Dilin Tespiti

One of the mirrors that best reflects the definition, meaning, feeling, course, change, and transformation of the image of women, which is hidden and censored in the subconscious of social memory, is literary literature. In pend-nāmas, one of the genres that show the view of classical Turkish literature on things, women, and society, the ideal society is imagined, and what the individual should do for this is explained in a simple and understandable style. This study aims to determine the perspective of the poet, the commentator, and thus the society on women, to try to read the place of women in society and to identify the masculine language used in these texts based on the commentaries made by the commentators of the classical Turkish literature period on Pend-nāme-i Attâr, one of the essential works of Persian literature. Although feminist research and gender studies have developed since the 1970s-1980s, it is possible to trace women in texts written in much earlier periods, considering that women are the mothers of society and the generation begins with her. Thus, it will be easier to follow the development of the centuries-long story of women and the changing perspective over time. In this study, in which the document analysis method, one of the qualitative research methods, was used, the largest Pend-nāme-i Attâr commentaries written in the 18th and 19th centuries in Turkish literature were preferred. The commentaries of the commentators on the source couplets in which women are in question were determined, and the intention was read. As a result, based on these commentaries, it was understood that it was not "women" but "women with bad morals" who were criticized. It has been concluded that the view that women with bad morals are beings who cause men to fall into heedlessness and, therefore, should be avoided has gained weight. The reason for the heavy criticism is that women have a high transformative and transformative effect on men and, thus, on society. In short, a woman is a man's weakness, and resisting her requires a strong will. Being aware of this, the masculine mentality actually appeals to its own ego by giving her advice. This emphasizes the fact that men and women are complementary beings and that the degradation of one inevitably leads to the degradation of the other. It is scientifically unsatisfactory to draw general conclusions from a few texts. For this reason, other texts of classical Turkish literature, which has a wide range of genres, should be analyzed one by one, and different perspectives, if any, should be identified. Subsequently, the reasons for the exclusion of women, their being regarded as half-witted, and their being regarded as passive being who must be constantly taken care of and managed will be explained with more concrete and realistic justifications.

Protection, expertise and domination: Cyber masculinity in practice

Masculine tropes are ingrained in cyber-security discourse, as with other forms of security. Such language perpetuates concepts and paradigms that regulate the identities of those involved in cyber-security practice. Further, it may serve to exclude those for whom such identities are not desirable. Through a qualitative study of 18 commercial businesses, utilising data gained from semi-structured interviews of CISOs and senior organisational leaders as well as analysis of company documentation, this study provides empirical data that demonstrates the use of masculine language and concepts in cyber-security practice, which is discussed and deconstructed through a lens of identity work. In so doing, this paper identifies such language as being both regulatory and exclusionary. We introduce the term cyber masculinity to refer to the dominance of these masculine concepts and propose future research directions that can challenge this dominance and achieve a de-masculinization of the field.

Topic choice, gendered language, and the under-funding of female scholars in mission-oriented research

We investigate the participation of male and female applicants to a competition for research funding, using an original dataset with detailed information on both successful and unsuccessful applicants to 21 calls by a mission-oriented funding agency. We use this information to construct a fictitious pool of 277,464 potential applicants and to model their probability to submit an application. We find that, even after controlling for productivity, quality of research, seniority, years of career discontinuity, number of prior applications, affiliation, and ethnicity, women were still less likely to apply than men. The lower likelihood of females to apply was not explained by the use of masculine language in the text of the calls. Instead, women's research interests were more distant from the topics of the calls than men's. Topic proximity fully mediated female penalization in the likelihood to apply for research funding. These results are an important heads-up, in view of the increasing focus of governments in mission-oriented programs.

Pola Komunikasi Laki – Laki dan Perempuan Dalam Tradisi Karo Suku Tengger

The Karo traditional ceremony is often referred to as the Karo holiday or Praise Karo, which is a ritual ceremony of the Tengger Tribe which consists of various kinds of rituals. At this Karo Ceremony, the Tengger people commemorate Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa (God) who created two types of human beings (Karo), namely men and women as their ancestors. In a series of rituals performed by many men, such as the sodoran and the tip dance. Researchers investigated how the communication patterns of men and women in the Karo tradition of Jetak Village. This study used a qualitative method by trying to study deeply about the perspective of male and female communication patterns in the karo tradition of the tengger tribe, Jetak village. The results of this study indicate that the communication process that occurs between men and women in the karo tradition is a model of a divided, balanced communication pattern. Where the communication that occurs is well established and dynamic. In this pattern of communication, men and women have different areas of power. Men and women are seen as experts in different fields. During the communication process, there are different forms of conversation between men and women of the Tengger tribe. These differences can be distinguished in the form of feminine and masculine language styles. The women of the Tengger tribe will show themselves as responsive individuals and their goal is none other than to maintain friendly relations with each other, while their men will speak with clear objectives, not to beat around the bush. In addition to the form of conversation, there are different communication behaviors during the communication process between men and women, namely among them report talks conducted by men and report talk conducted by women, in the tradition of karo - men of the Tengger tribe who are more active in speaking in the public sphere and women who are more active in speaking in the private sphere (private speaking).
 Keywords: Communication, Karo Customs, Tengger

He, him, his: Masculine language in professional guidance and assessed equity and inclusion of women and LGBTQ+ people in the profession

Three experiments examine how the use of masculine language in professional guidance affects assessments of the equity and inclusion of historically marginalized gender and sexual orientation groups in the accounting profession. Experiment 1 manipulates the pronouns used in auditing standards as masculine vs. gender-inclusive, and finds that masculine pronouns reduce accounting professionals' assessed equity and inclusion of women and LGBTQ+ people in the audit profession. Participant gender also has an effect, with women making lower overall equity and inclusion assessments. In Experiment 2, college students read a neutral-language accounting job ad as well as professional guidance that uses masculine vs. gender-inclusive pronouns, and assess the accounting profession's equity and inclusion of women and LGBTQ+ people. Masculine pronouns reduce students' equity and inclusion assessments, and this effect is stronger for women and LGBTQ+ participants. In Experiment 3, LGBTQ+ and non-LGBTQ+ U.S. residents assess the equity and inclusion of LGBTQ+ people in accounting. Pronouns have a stronger effect on LGBTQ+ than non-LGBTQ+ participants. Further, for LGBTQ+ participants, the effect of pronouns is not conditioned on participant gender; however, pronouns affect non-LGBTQ+ women's, but not non-LGBTQ+ men's, assessments of LGBTQ+ equity and inclusion.

Black women at war: The Shadow King (2019), Cronache dalla polvere (2019), and intersectional violence in contemporary Italy

ABSTRACT Through a comparative analysis of Maaza Mengiste’s award-winning The Shadow King (2019) and Zoya Barontini’s collective mosaic novel Cronache dalla polvere (Chronicles from the dust) (2019), this article traces the roots of contemporary Italy’s intersectional violence back to the country’s colonial history. While the Ethiopian American Mengiste redresses the masculine language of war by dramatizing the historical experience of Ethiopian female partisans, the Italian authors of Cronache dalla polvere deliberately assign to Ethiopian female characters the task of recording, remembering, and retelling the atrocities committed by the Italian fascists against the local population. Drawing on interdisciplinary explorations of the intersections among race, gender, and class in contemporary Italy by Heather Merrill and Gaia Giuliani, and in Italian postcolonial literature by Caterina Romeo, it seeks to demonstrate how the two novels attempt to reorient the Italian literary archive in ways that illuminate the colonial matrix of the country’s persistent culture of intersectional violence.

Identities between the lines: Re-aligning gender and professional identities in job advertisements

Advertisements for male-dominated jobs tend to contain more masculine language, which can deter women from applying because it highlights the incongruence between their gender and professional identities. A commonly proposed intervention is to remove this masculine language to attract more women. However, research on masculinity and gender suggests that men can also experience incongruence with stereotypical expectations for masculinity. In this paper, we build theory to explain how a “gender de-biasing” intervention on masculine language in job advertisements for male-dominated jobs increases gender diversity of applicants by attracting more people (not only women, but also men) who may not strongly adhere to the expectations traditionally associated with male gender identity. Across an extensive database of 576 job postings and over 30,000 applicants from a large organization, a quasi-experiment in the field, and a pre-registered online experiment, we find that removing masculine language from job postings leads to an increase in application rates from individuals who appear incongruent with the masculine identity – including both women and men who identify as less masculine. Theoretically, our research suggests the importance of aligning multiple identities when signaling who is welcome to apply for job opportunities. Practically, our findings suggest a concrete, feasible intervention to increase the gender diversity of applicants.

A Delicate Hand or Two-Fisted Aggression? How Gendered Language Influences Candidate Perceptions

Gendered language is seemingly found everywhere in American politics. We test the impact that gendered language has on voter support for a candidate, using a validated dictionary of words rated as highly masculine or feminine. In three experimental studies, we find that the use of feminine language causes individuals to perceive political candidates as more liberal. Additionally, liberals tend to prefer candidates who use feminine language, and conservatives prefer candidates who use masculine language, regardless of the sex of the candidate. These effects are mostly mediated, however, by perceptions of candidate ideology caused by the use of language.

She is the chair(man): Gender, language, and leadership

This article presents results from two complementary experiments that examine the effects of a potential obstacle to female leadership: gendered language in the form of masculine leadership titles. In the first experiment (N = 1753), we utilize an unobtrusive writing task to find that a masculine title (“Chairman” vs. “Chair”) increases assumptions that a hypothetical leader is a man, even when the leader’s gender is left unspecified. In the second experiment (N = 1000), we use a surprise recall task and a treatment that unambiguously communicates the leader’s gender to find that a masculine title increases the accuracy of leader recollection only when the leader is a man. In both studies, we find no significant differences by gender of respondents in the effects of masculine language on reinforcing the link between masculinity and leadership. Thus, implicitly sexist language as codified in masculine titles can reinforce stereotypes that tie masculinity to leadership and consequently, weaken the connection between women and leadership.

Gender Representations Elicited by the Gender Star Form

In many languages, masculine language forms are not only used to designate the male gender but also to operate in a generic fashion. This dual function has been found to lead to male biased representations when people encounter the generic masculine. In German, the now predominant substitute is the gender star form (e.g., Athlet*innen). In two experiments, we examined gender representations elicited when reading the gender star form (vs. generic masculine vs. pair forms). We found that, following the generic masculine, continuations about men (vs. women) were more frequently and more quickly judged to be compatible, replicating the male bias, even though participants were informed about the generic intention. Following the gender star form, a female bias in judgments (both Studies) and speed (only Study 2) occurred, which was somewhat smaller. Representations were most balanced when both male and female forms were mentioned.

He, Him, His: Masculine Language in Professional Guidance and Assessed Equity and Inclusion of Women and LGBTQ People in the Profession

He, Him, His: Masculine Language in Professional Guidance and Assessed Equity and Inclusion of Women and LGBTQ People in the Profession