Masculine Behavior Research Articles

The gendered behaviors displayed by Disney protagonists.

Previous research suggests that the portrayal of male and female protagonists in Disney animations may be changing over time. The current study examined the portrayal of gendered behaviors displayed within some of Disney's most successful animated feature length films, including those beyond the Disney princess franchise. Extending the scope of the Disney animated films analyzed was important because both young girls and young boys report little personal interest in male characters within the Disney princess animations. This suggests that it is important to look beyond the Disney princess franchise to understand the gendered behaviors displayed by potentially influential male Disney protagonists. The current study also considered a greater number of masculine and feminine behaviors as well as some gender-neutral traits which had yet to be incorporated. A quantitative content analysis of 39 Disney protagonists from films released between 1937 and 2021 was conducted. The results revealed that male and female protagonists were statistically higher in feminine than masculine traits. Female protagonists from the earliest animations were the most feminine. However, there was no statistical difference in the gendered portrayals of females in the animations released in the 1990s and those released from 2009 to 2021 suggesting some continued stereotyping in females' profiles. Alternatively, male characters were more feminine relatively consistently across time-points. This study concludes that Disney is persistently portraying stereotyped female protagonists, and this could have implications on young females' behavioral profiles. However, the extent to which feminine traits are being celebrated when displayed by male protagonists needs to be examined, as well as the potential relationship between such messages and boys' behaviors and children's conceptualizations of gender more broadly.

Unveiling toxic masculinity symbols: Peircean semiotic analysis in films “Seperti Dendam Rindu Harus Dibayar Tuntas”

“Seperti Dendam Rindu Harus Dibayar Tuntas” movie depicts how societal pressures concerning masculine characters are illustrated through male attractiveness, centered around their genitalia, the dominance of power, the suppression of emotions or sadness, and physical strength and toughness. According to Terry A. Kupers, toxic masculinity comprises four main components: the suppression of anything labeled as feminine, emotional repression, male domination, and aggression. This study employs a qualitative and descriptive approach to illustrate the phenomenon of toxic masculinity in films. The data collection is conducted through documentary, observational, and literary methods and subsequently analyzed using Peirce's semiotics by examining icons, indexes, and symbols. The research results demonstrate that the representation of toxic masculinity in the film is portrayed through Ajo Kawir as the main character who suffers from impotence and adopts masculine traits to mask his condition. Toxic masculinity behavior is more likely to be produced when Ajo Kawir's masculinity is threatened. Ajo's toxic masculinity behavior becomes more extreme after experiencing erectile dysfunction. Furthermore, this research reveals that sexual power is a part of toxic masculinity, depicted by viewing male genitalia as a symbol of virility. Related to the characteristics of toxic masculinity, this research identifies a complementary character in Kupers' concept, which is excessive sexual processes.

A “Queer” Mother of Nations: Reproductive Futurism and the Maccabean Mother of Seven

Abstract This article explores the presentation of the Mother of Seven Sons in 2 and 4 Maccabees and her reception in some rabbinic literature. It uses as a framework queer theory, particularly Lee Edelman’s concept of reproductive futurism. Ultimately, it argues that the texts’ simultaneous emphasis on the Mother’s maternal body and her masculine behaviors constructs her as a queer figure. This queerness enables her to effectively resist the physical and cultural violence of the Roman imperial project.

Alcohol and masculinity within community sports clubs in Aotearoa New Zealand

ABSTRACT Traditionally, males have been more involved in community sports, and they also consume alcohol at higher rates compared to other genders in Aotearoa NZ. The present study drew on notions of gender and hegemonic masculinity to explore people's experiences of sports clubs, alcohol and masculinity. In-depth individual interviews were undertaken with 12 participants (10 males, 2 females, aged 23–56), who belonged to a range of sports clubs. Following transcription, the data were analysed thematically, and three key themes were identified: (1) pervasiveness: alcohol is everywhere; (2) masculine behaviours dominate; (3) feeling alienated. Findings reinforce how hegemonic masculinity and alcohol consumption remain pervasive within many community sports settings. This impacts on feelings of belonging and views on what constitutes appropriate behaviours. Those who do not belong to the dominant group, or conform to the status quo, are subordinated and formal hierarchies continue to favour dominant groups. Harmful behaviours linked with hegemonic masculinity were also exacerbated by alcohol consumption. Findings are considered in terms of how to change power dynamics and drinking practices perpetuated by hegemonic masculine norms to promote a more inclusive and safer space for all members of community sports clubs.

Challenges faced by women military officers in the South African National Defence Force: A case study of the Hoedspruit Air Force Base, Limpopo

abstract The military has a deep-rooted masculine culture. One of the aspects of this masculinity, which is hegemonic in its cultural dominance, is the perspective on and perception of femininity. The masculine behaviour resents the weak; therefore, soldiers are trained not to complain or project any feminine traits, such as being caring and nurturing, or displaying ‘softness’). Soldiers need to be able to do without emotions like empathy or showing emotions of regret in order to be able to function appropriately as soldiers. Feminine attributes are looked upon as ‘weak’ or ‘soft’. For instance, attributes such as sensitivity and compassion are deemed to be in contrast to the military culture. This article aims to elucidate the challenges faced by women military officers in the South African National Defence Force in Limpopo Province. It does so by applying the liberal feminist theory. The researcher used feminist qualitative research methods and an exploratory research design, with snowball sampling used to identify 15 female officers for in-depth interviews (6 women) and a focus group discussion (9 women). Thematic analysis was used for data analysis. The findings revealed that women military officers face challenges such as gendered discrimination, racial discrimination, vigorous basic military training, and exclusion from participation in decision making. There is still much need for improvement when it comes to addressing the challenges faced by women in the military.

From able-bodied soldier to disabled veteran: moral striving among Danish wounded veterans

ABSTRACT In this article, we investigate the role of military identity in Danish wounded veterans’ efforts to re-establish identity after trauma and come to terms with a disabled body. Drawing on qualitative interviews with physically wounded male veterans, we explore the two simultaneous transitions of moving from able-bodied to disabled, and from military to civilian life. Focusing on wounded veterans’ existential bodily experiences and moral striving, we elucidate how the veterans position themselves in relation to the disability label, and how military ideals of hegemonic masculinity and gender roles frame their efforts to cope with disability. Our interviews uncover that the Danish veterans strongly refuse to accept the status of ‘disabled’. In a persistent striving for normality, they invest immense efforts into their self-representation in an attempt to dissociate themselves from being victimized. Maintaining masculine military values and refusing to be vulnerable, the veterans adhere to a dichotomous notion of being either a man or a victim, thus establishing a very limited space for creating a new identity as disabled. We argue that, paradoxically, the veterans’ efforts to come to terms with and inhabit their disabled bodies aim at establishing continuity with their former soldier identity through masculine behaviour and disability sports, thus overcoming disability rather than accepting it.

Gender roles and masculinities in leveraging milk for household nutrition: Evidence from two districts in Rwanda

Malnutrition in children remains a significant public health and development challenge in Rwanda. Animal Source Foods (ASFs) provide an important mechanism for supplying children with energy, proteins, and micro-nutrients. Using evidence from a study on the Girinka dairy program in Rwanda, this article adds a masculinities lens to nutrition strategies. It suggests potential ways to engage men in nutrition interventions whilst promoting gender-equitable masculinities that improve children’s access to ASFs and create more gender-equal relations.A qualitative study was conducted in 2020 in two districts in Rwanda. The methodology included 8 sex-disaggregated focus group discussions (24 women and 24 men) and 8 key informant interviews (56 respondents total). Discussions explored gender roles and responsibilities in the household regarding the provision of ASFs for nutrition and exploring potential avenues for engaging men in ASFs nutrition initiatives.The results indicate that norms about ‘appropriate masculine and feminine behaviour’ strongly affect intra-household nutrition. Men are normatively responsible for providing money to purchase food and women to buy and prepare food. However, consumption of ASFs is low. Men do not provide sufficient monies for purchasing ASFs or may sell ASFs they produce rather than allocate them to their families. Women generally feel disempowered through male-dominant decision-making processes. Yet, men who seek to enact more gender-equitable behaviours can be scorned at the community level.Nevertheless, men respondents are strongly interested in being trained on nutrition through village leadership, and in male spaces. We recommend working with male behavioural change frameworks at multiple levels.

The Fragile Male: An Experimental Study of Transgender Classification and the Durability of Gender Categories

Is maleness as durable a social classification as femaleness? Theories of gender suggest that men’s dominance in the gender hierarchy affords them greater privileges than women, whereas theories of status predict that men would be subject to greater scrutiny precisely because they occupy a higher-status position. We interrogate the nature of gender categories themselves by examining which theories hold in the context of gender nonconformity. Using a nationally representative survey experiment, we examine how a child’s sex assigned at birth affects their likelihood of being reclassified as transgender for engaging in gender-nonconforming behavior. We find that people are more likely to reclassify boys exhibiting feminine behavior into an alternative identity category (transgender) than girls exhibiting analogous masculine behavior. Thus, membership in the “male” category is more fragile than in the “female” category. These findings suggest that gender nonconformity is itself a gendered process, and that the durability of membership in a social category depends on the status of that social identity. This study provides the first causal evidence of the effect of gender nonconformity on perceptions of both transgender and homosexual identity.

Public Leadership during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Can Leadership Theories Explain It?

This study analyses the emergent activities of public leaders (PLs) during the COVID-19 pandemic. Are the activities of PLs associated with their performance, and do leadership theories explain the activities of such leaders? The findings of 18 articles published in 2020 were summarized and 10 themes were constructed from the words and phrases found in the findings. High-performing PLs and collaborators analyse the context, make decisions and implement interventions urgently. They mobilize people to adhere to preventive health practices, communicate empathetically, show masculine and feminine behaviours, interpersonal sensitivity and they are resilient and tech-savvy. They address emerging discrimination, attempt to reduce economic hardships, collaborate with multiple sectors and display valued behaviours. Multiple theories model their behaviours, which can be subsumed under adaptive leadership. Adaptive and flexible leaders show context sensitivity, focus on the present, learn constantly, foster cross-sector collaborations, deliver on a shared purpose and implement activities congruent with situational requirements to halt the spread of and death from coronavirus. Adaptive responses spread to other leaders, COVID warriors and public.

Beyond Toxic Masculinity: Reading and Writing Men in Post-Apartheid Namibia

Over the past few years, the term “toxic masculinity” has entered public debate in Namibia as a way to describe apparently problematic forms of masculine behaviour, particularly in the light of high levels of gender-based violence. Originating in Western discourse, the term itself is difficult as it can stifle meaningful and transformative conversations concerning men. Describing “toxic masculinity” as a trope, and indicating that tropes of violence have been used and politicised before, this article proposes a different way of reading men: via the mask. To do this, the “tropological place” is introduced as a space of intimacy and trust, in which the kinds of masks that men wear become visible. Although the introduction of “toxic masculinity” into debates around masculinities in Namibia should be acknowledged as an important starting point for conversations, this article urges researchers to think beyond it, encouraging more lateral relations with those that we research.

Language games: the gendered politics of the speech act in Ben Lerner's The Topeka School

ABSTRACT R.W. Connell argues that masculinity is not a unitary phenomenon; rather, that masculinities emerge out of situationally specific choices drawn from a ‘cultural repertoire’ of so-called masculine behaviour that result in a particular ‘configuration of practice’. Ben Lerner's novel The Topeka School (2019) calls attention to this process by focussing on the coding of particular speech-acts as masculine in the context of mid-nineties, small-town Kansas; moreover, he contextualises these particular speech-acts as the cultural precursors to the political rise of the alt-right, leading to Trump's presidency. In The Topeka School, then, speech-acts are not simply gendered but shown to have significant political ramifications. In this paper I argue that while Lerner dissects the genealogy of this particular construction of masculinity, he also presents alternative models of gendered speech-acts that subvert what Hélène Cixous calls the libidinal and cultural masculine economy, and that he explicitly links each of these models to the figure of the mother. Lerner thus suggests a gender-inclusive speaking-back against the dominant masculinist order, with the mother acting as a key locus of political dissent, resistance, and change – he suggests, too, what Connell would call a necessary reconfiguration of masculine practice.

Team Masculinity and Performance: Evidence from Major League Soccer

Abstract: Previous papers provide evidence that psychological characteristics such as personal masculinity are related to performance. Although relationships have been well established on an individual level, there has been little attempt to analyze the performance of teams that diverge in terms of masculinity. This paper studies the impact of team masculinity on its performance, paying particular attention to the connection between masculinity and cooperative behavior within a team. We use data on Major League Soccer teams because sports competitions represent a good ground for demonstrating masculinity and provide open data. Our results suggest a positive connection between the group’s average masculinity and its performance. We test whether this fact can be explained by increased in-group cooperation, first revealed in Stirrat and Perrett’s experimental study (2012) but do not find any relationship. As for the team’s diversity in masculinity, we do not find any impact on team performance.

Counseling With Male Clients: The Case for Relational Resilience Approach.

Although there is no lack of research on masculinity and help-seeking behavior, men continue to seek counseling less often than women. It is crucial we find effective therapeutic approaches to connect and meet men where they are, acknowledging the positive aspects of their masculinity while addressing their needs in the counseling setting. In this conceptual research article, we propose a new approach for counselors to utilize with men seeking counseling, the Relational Resilience Approach, which applies tenets of Relational-Cultural Theory, Positive Psychology, and Shame Resilience Theory.

Religious masculinities in William of Newburgh’s Historia rerum Anglicarum

Abstract William’s revenant stories, far from being oddities, fit well within the Historia rerum Anglicarum and can be read as reformist models of masculine behaviour. They present the reader with negative examples, such as clerics who acted in inappropriate ways and got their rightful punishment, as well as positive examples of men who not only stayed faithful to the precepts of the church but bolstered their masculinity by doing so. Reading the revenant stories within this framework allows us to see how religious men adopted and adapted secular masculine ideals, shows us the value of focusing on the intersection of gender and religious status, reveals the different means through which gendered messages spread, and acts as a reminder that although one group may have been the target of regulations, all men were affected by them.

A cross-cultural approach to issues of male dominance and domestic violence

Harmful masculine norms, attitudes, and behaviours are considered the cause of most cases of gender-based violence against women and girls in most parts of the world. This premise applies to the patriarchal society of Sri Lanka as well. Regarding various policy-level efforts made to reduce the frequency of gender-based violence in Sri Lanka, this paper explores the efficacy of adapting a cross-cultural evidence-based approach to gender relations tried under the Parivartan programme in India in an effort to improve masculinity-based gender norms in Sri Lanka. The programme’s content and consensual validities are assessed by using the Delbecq technique which involves experts from a variety of relevant fields. At the onset of the programme, each expert independently rates the relevant concepts and teaching techniques that are generally used by cricket coaches on male cricketers of 12-14 years. Towards the end, after a group discussion by experts, a second rating is made of the same concepts and teaching techniques. The two ratings are compared, and the programme is revised to suit Sri Lankan society. The Sri Lankan experience of the cross-cultural evidence-based approach to gender relations inspired by the Parivartan programme in India shows satisfactory content and consensual validities. Therefore, this paper argues that the Delbecq technique is a useful tool to devise in improving masculinity-based gender norms in the society of Sri Lanka.

“They expect me to be caring”: the challenges of claiming an androgynous leadership approach

PurposeThis study aims to explore the experience of performing androgynous leadership approaches by New Zealand women leaders within the context of everyday conflict situations.Design/methodology/approachThe research question “How do women leaders experience gender in conflict situations?” was explored through the facilitation of 4 focus groups with 19 senior female leaders in New Zealand. Poststructural discourse analysis was used to explore how participants negotiated positions of power within their environments and in accordance with competing gendered discourses.FindingsParticipants described taking a flexible, balanced, androgynous leadership approach to managing conflict situations. While the expectations to be “empathetic”, “sympathetic”, “gentle”, “nurturing” and “caring” resonated with the participants preferred approach, they remained firm that if conflict persisted, they would “cross the line” and adopt stereotypically masculine behaviours to resolve the situation. However, participants describe that when perceived to be crossing the line from feminine to masculine approaches, they experienced significant backlash. This demonstrates the tensions between the approaches women leaders would like to take in managing conflict and the experiences of doing so within a prescriptively gendered organisational context.Originality/valueThis research contributes to a gap which exists in understanding how gender is experienced from the viewpoint of the woman leader. This research presents a nuanced view of gendered leadership as a contested ground, rather than a series of strategic choices. Despite an increase in the acceptance of women into leadership positions, the authors seemingly remain bound by what is considered a “feminine” leader.

Male Perspective on Construction of Masculinity: Issues and Challenges in Lahore

Masculinity is the dominant gender discourse of masculine behaviour embedded in men’s everyday practices, behaviours, and actions. Since at least the 1980s, these gendered social norms have been argued to create stress, strain, and conflicts for men. Investigating those experiences and circumstances where gender patterns are less or more open to change is an important task of this research. Therefore, this study aims to include men in the “study up” approach of the gender research domain and include their experiences in the conversation of gendered lobbying under patriarchal perceptions. Using the Gender Role Strain paradigm as a guiding framework, the study intends to explore the male perspective on the construction of masculinity in contemporary Pakistani society. A qualitative phenomenological research design has been used, and snowball and purposive sampling techniques are used in conjunction for the recruitment of participants with the help of pre-defined inclusion criteria. The participants of the study are diverse in terms of age, educational background, and family situation. Each participant was interviewed at length using an in-depth interview guide, including topics from the beginning of childhood across the lifespan. The result of the interviews supports the social constructionist perspective of masculinity and also focuses on the strain and challenges of the masculine norms associated with the existing conceptions of masculinity and gender role strain.

The Moderating Effect of a Golden Parachute on the Association between CSR and Firm Value: Does Gender-Driven Innovation Matter?

We revisit the debate on whether a firm’s corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities enhance firm value. Research on related topics has produced mixed results suggesting a need to further investigate factors that directly or indirectly impact the CSR–firm value association. To this end, we examine if a firm’s adoption of a golden parachute (GP) moderates the relationship between CSR and firm value. We also investigate if diversity-based innovation as it pertains to the gender of executives reveals any difference in the CSR–firm value relation. Using a sample of 11,065 firm-year observations of publicly traded US firms from 2007 to 2016, we find that CSR activities are significantly and positively associated with firm value. More importantly, our study shows that for US firms that issue GPs, this severance pay strengthens this positive relationship, suggesting that CEOs with a GP engage in more value-enhancing innovative CSR projects than their counterparts without it. This finding supports the conflict resolution theory and the resource-based view of the firm. A test to examine if the gender of the corporate executives alters their behavior towards CSR when the GP protects them shows an inverse relationship between female executives and CSR–firm value association. This interesting finding lends credence to related theories suggesting that women in male-dominated fields may feel pressured to conform to the stereotype of women as less competent than men and may adopt traditionally masculine behaviors to counteract this stereotype. As they climb the corporate leadership ladder endowed with a GP, the stereotype threat may still prevail, adversely affecting the CSR–firm value outcomes. These results remain robust after a series of sensitivity tests.

Boys rule!: Purim and the holy innocents in early modern Worms

AbstractThe role of boys and young men in premodern societies was both precarious and promising. Being in a liminal space between childhood and adulthood, they needed to practice their future roles in society. This article discusses Jewish and Christian annual celebrations involving groups of boys and young men in late medieval and early modern Worms that show similar features and an effort across different religious groups to provide a space for them. Jewish youth took leading roles in the liturgy and in festivities outside the synagogue on and after Shabbat ha‐baḥurim (the boys’ Sabbath), observed on the first Sabbath after Purim. Cathedral choristers and other Christian schoolboys in Worms, led by boy kings and boy bishops, celebrated in connection with the Feast of the Holy Innocents. These festivities were structured similarly in both communities and consisted of the selection of leaders, processions, liturgical inversions, and festive meals. With these celebrations, both communities offered an occasion for young men to practice masculine behaviors and internalize masculine norms.

Забруднювач довкілля бісфенол А порушує програмування статевої поведінки у жіночого потомства щурів

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a common environmental pollutant and, due to its estrogenic properties, can cause disorders of the reproductive and other physiological systems of the body, especially in males. It is known that in male rats it disrupts the sexual differentiation of the brain (SDB) of the fetus in utero. Studies of the effects of perinatal exposure of fetuses and newborn females through the mother’s body under the conditions of long-term administration of BPA during pregnancy and lactation did not reveal significant changes in SDB. Identification of long-term endocrine, neuromorphological, and behavioral consequences of exposure of female rat fetuses to a low dose of BPA administered to mothers during the last week of pregnancy, which corresponds to the temporal period of SDB, was the aim of this study. Rats were orally administered BPA suspended in Dorfman gel at a daily dose of 25 μg/kg b.w., which is 200 times less than the NOAEL (no observed adverse effect level) for rats, via a gavage, or, as a positive control, estradiol diacetate (E2D) subcutaneously at a dose of 10 μg/kg b.w., during 15-21 days of pregnancy. Control animals received gel without BPA. The levels of estradiol, testosterone, and corticosterone in blood plasma, the response of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis to acute immobilization stress, sexual behavior, and the histological structure and karyometric parameters of neurocytes of the medial-preoptic nuclei (MPN) of the hypothalamus were studied in adult female offspring. Prenatal exposure to BPA or E2D decreased the concentration of estradiol in the blood plasma, while the levels of testosterone and corticosterone remained normal. In the females of the BPA and E2D groups, a masculinization of sexual behavior (mounting to a receptive female, approaching her, etc.) was observed, which, according to the number of lordosis reactions in the presence of a sexually experienced male, not accompanied by her defeminization. Changes in the morphology of the MPN, which belongs to the sex-dimorphic area of the brain, conformed to the masculinization of female sexual behavior due to prenatal exposure to a low dose of BPA. Karyometry of neurocytes of the hypothalamic MPN of rats revealed no difference between the control and the BPA group. The response of the HPA axis to immobilization stress did not change in both experimental groups. It is found for the first time that maternal exposure of in utero female rat fetuses to an ultra-low relative to the NOAEL dose of BPA during the last gestational week, which corresponds to the critical period of SDB impairs programming of sexual behavior in the direction of its masculinization and causes hypoestrogenemia at adulthood. Disorders of sexual behavior conformed to morphological changes of the hypothalamic MPN. The unidirectionality of functional disorders induced by prenatal exposure to BPA and the reference estrogenic drug E2D indicates that they are caused by the estrogenic properties of both substances.