Martindale Abrasion Research Articles

Development and Investigation of PEDOT:PSS Composition Coated Fabrics Intended for Microwave Shielding and Absorption.

This study presents the investigation of the electromagnetic properties and resistance performance of electrically conductive fabrics coated with composition containing the conjugated polymer system poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS). The developed fabrics were intended for electromagnetic radiation (EMR) shielding in microwave range and for absorbing microwaves in radar operating range, so as to act as radar absorbing materials (RAM). The measurements of reflection and transmission of the developed fabrics were performed in a frequency range of 2–18 GHz, which covers the defined frequencies relevant to the application. Four types of fabrics with different fiber composition (polyamide; polyamide/cotton; wool and para-aramid/viscose) were selected and coated with conductive paste using screen printing method. It was found that EMR shielding effectiveness (SE) as well as absorption properties depend not only the amount of conductive paste topped on the fabric, but also resides in the construction parameters of fabrics. Depending on such fabric structural parameters as density, mass per unit area, type of weave, a layer of shield (or coating) just sticks on the fabric surface or penetrates into fabric, changing the shield thickness and herewith turning SE results. Meanwhile, the fiber composition of fabrics influences mostly bonding between fibers and polymer coating. To improve the resistance performance of the developed samples, a conventional textile surface modification technique, atmospheric plasma treatment, was applied. Initially, before plasma treatment and after treatment the fabrics were evaluated regarding an aqueous liquid repellency test, measuring the contact angles for the water solvent. The influence of plasma treatment on resistance performance of coated fabrics was evaluated by subjecting the plasma treated samples and untreated samples to abrasion in the Martindale abrasion apparatus and to multiplex washing cycles. These investigations revealed that applied plasma treatment visibly improved abrasion resistance as a result of better adhesion of the coating. However, washing resistance increased not so considerably.

OCCUPATIONAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH. THE WRINKLE RECOVERY ANGLE (WRA) STUDY OF FABRIC THAT NANO-SILVER TREATED

The constant use of wrinkle-resistant cellulose fabrics in professional and everyday life can negatively affect the health state. This is because formaldehyde vapours, which contribute to allergies, persistent coughing, and irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat, sleep disturbances, headaches, etc., pose a greater danger. In this study an attempt was made to achieve fabric stabilization from wrinkle resistant by formation ionic bonds of as replacement covalent bonds. And this is the main study purpose. Industrially Desized and Bleached 100 % pure cotton fabric with the weight of 110 g/m2, and the chemicals were used. Preparation of cationic glycerine, carboxymethylation of bleached fabric and application of antimicrobial finishes on the ionic cross-linked fabric was provided. Measurements were taken to determine of wrinkle recovery angle (WRA), of absorbency, of whiteness index, of flexural rigidity, of abrasion, of tensile strength. Wrinkle recovery angle was measured by standard method of AATCC 66 (option 2). AATCC Test Method 79-2000 was used to test the absorbency of fabric. The CIE whiteness index was determined using an Xrite Colour Eye 7000A spectrophotometer. Flexural Rigidity was measured through a testing cantilever method ASTM D-1388. Fabric abrasion was checked according to standard method for abrasion resistance of textile fabric ASTM 4966 on Martindale Abrasion Device M235. Mechanical strength of the fabric was measured under the standard method of ASTM D-5034. With the ionic cross-linking, the dry WRA was achieved an optimum of 118º and wet WRA up to 128º with increased fabric strength and whiteness. In addition to ionic cross-linking fabric was treated with Nano silver. Based on the results it was concluded that the fabric can be optimized first with ionic cross-link method and then it can be treated with the antimicrobial making the fabric cleaner and hygienic. This fabric treatment provides the necessary characteristics and is safe for the health of the people who use it.

Launderability of Conductive Polymer Yarns Used for Connections of E-textile Modules: Mechanical Stresses

E-textile is one of the emerging fields of current era and some dynamic and state of the art products are already available on the market. E-textile products are facing problems related to reliability and difficulty in laundering. This paper is focused on the standards to be proposed for washability of e-textile structures after in depth analysis of wash process. Mechanical forces acting on the e-textile structure during washing are considered the most damaging among all others. Well known textile benchmark tests such as Martindale abrasion and pilling box are supposed to have similar mechanical damages on e-textile structures as in washing. As E-textiles relay on flexible connections (textile motherboard) within textile structure realized by conductive yarns, they are the main target of our investigations. The resultant change in electrical resistance after mechanical tests on silver plated conductive yarns used as connection threads in e-textile structures is co-related with washing results to propose equivalent damage effect without washing of samples.

Protocol to assess the quality of transmission lines within smart textile structures

The washability issue is always a challenge for electronic textiles in terms of application. It reduces their reliability, makes them not robust enough, and therefore not ready for the market. In this study, a novel protocol was designed to test the performance of conductive threads under wet situation in order to simulate the washing cycle. In this content, two commercially available silver-plated polyamide threads having the same thread count were used and washing results of each thread were discussed. Transmission lines with silver-plated polyamide threads onto cotton woven fabric were produced via sewing (single-line stitch) and embroidery techniques (three-line stitch) to improve the conductivity and robustness. For the simulation of the wash process, Martindale abrasion tester was used under wet and dry conditions. Moreover, felts of abrasion tester and transmission lines were put into different solutions, i.e., water, water with standardized detergent and water with commercially available detergent. After wetting specimens, abrasion tests were performed on transmission lines, and linear electrical resistance measurements were recorded with the multi meter before abrasion and every 1500 cycles up to 4500 cycles in wet conditions and also after drying the transmission lines. Finally, abrasion impact on silver-plated polyamide threads was investigated by optical microscope. It has been found that silver coating on the conductive thread was damaged when subjected to abrasion cycles, especially in wet states. Water itself has stress impact on samples provoking the electrical resistance increase rapidly. Commercial detergent with water was found to have the most damaging effect on the conductive threads because of extra particles presence to enhance the washing performance. In terms of integration methods, better electrical conductivity values were achieved in three-line embroidery transmission lines due to multiple interconnection points in the embroidery network.

Electrical conduction of reduced graphene oxide coated meta-aramid textile and its evolution under aging conditions

High-performance textiles – such as those used in protective clothing – age silently, undergoing a gradual reduction in their protective properties. We propose that an electrically conducting layer that loses its conductivity systematically under aging conditions can be used as an end-of-life-sensor for textiles. In the present work, we first present a simple method to prepare conductive tracks on a meta-aramid woven fabric using reduced graphene oxide. While 15 iterations of reduced graphene oxide coating cycles were needed to wrap around each m-aramid fiber with reduced graphene oxide sheets completely, 10 cycles were sufficient to establish the electrical conductivity that remained stable for up to 10 laboratory wash cycles (equivalent to 50 domestic laundry cycles). The conductivity of these reduced graphene oxide coated fabrics remained stable upon immersion in water. Furthermore, we established a fabrication protocol for patterning both single-sided and two-sided reduced graphene oxide tracks on the m-aramid fabric. The former is designed to lose its conductivity upon abrasion, while the latter is designed to undergo a gradual transition in properties during aging. Assessment with a Martindale abrasion tester revealed that the single-sided reduced graphene oxide–track lost its conductivity after 150 abrasion cycles, whereas the two-sided reduced graphene oxide–tracks survived 3000 abrasion cycles. These results demonstrate that a simple reduced graphene oxide coating technique can be used to prepare end-of-life sensors for high-performance textiles.

Application of natural dyes on diverse textile materials

While common textile dyeing processes are responsible for a large amount of residues in the wastewater from textile finishing companies, dyeing with natural dyes becomes more popular in the last time. In this way, not only water can be saved and water pollution avoided, but a broad spectrum of colors can be reached, opening new possibilities for textile designers. On the other hand, natural dyes are usually less intense and more prone to bleaching due to mechanical impact, washing or UV irradiation. Here we give an overview of different combinations of natural dyes used for dyeing diverse textile materials with and without pretreatment of the textile fabric. The resulting fabrics show a broad range of colors, depending mostly on the textile material and in some cases also on the pretreatment. While washing and UV treatment show a relatively small influence, Martindale abrasion tests changed some of the colors significantly.

Market readiness of smart textile structures - reliability and washability

Even if smart textiles gained a certain level of maturity, they are not yet ready for the market at large scale. The main issues explaining this are related to problems of reliability and difficulties to launder smart textile structures. Smart textiles are also facing problems for launching in market due to lack of standardizations. This paper is focused on washability standards of smart textiles. The objective is to co relate available textile mechanical tests with the washing of smart textiles and to observe the change in their performances. First, different washing functions and washing factors acting in laundering machines are analysed and discussed. Then Martindale abrasion tests and pilling box tests were performed in order to detect damages similar to those provoked by washing process. Two different types of silver coated conductive threads sewn on cotton plain woven fabric are used. Changes in threads resistance during these tests are analysed and correlated with modifications of electrical conductivity after washing of the similar samples. Therefore, the mechanical stresses underwent by conductive threads during washing cycle have been identified and reproduced by standardized testing equipment. More generally, this paper emphasizes all the problems, encompassing efforts that industry and research labs have to realize to make smart textile structures more robust and able to be cleaned or washed similarly to everyday textile products such as underwear, clothing, home textiles and even technical textiles. It gives indications on how the issues related to reliability and washability of smart textile structures have to be addressed in order to make them reliable and robust enough to be put on the market.

Fabrication of high-performance polytetrafluoroethylene microporous membranes filled with nano-alumina

In this article, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) microporous membranes with excellent tensile strength and good wear durability were successfully fabricated by the addition of nano-alumina (Al2O3). The friction and mechanical behavior of PTFE microporous membranes with different nano-Al2O3 contents were investigated by Martindale abrasion tester, dynamic mechanical analysis, and universal testing machine. Scanning electron microscopy was applied to analyze the surface, longitudinal section, and worn surface of the microporous membranes. Results demonstrated that nano-Al2O3 particles were dispersed into the “node” structures of PTFE microporous membranes and acted as the skeleton, leading to the increasing of the tensile strength remarkably. The wear rate reduced significantly with the addition of nano-Al2O3 and was affected by nano-Al2O3 content. Additionally, the wear mechanism of the microporous membranes was also discussed based on the study results.

Understanding thermomechanical failure of athletic textiles via the pendulum skid method

Fiber textiles worn by some athletes and basketball and volleyball players experience higher than usual thermomechanical stresses compared to everyday garments because these athletes slide and dive on hardwood courts. Common textile testing procedures, such as the Martindale abrasion tester, effectively test textiles under modest loads and thousands of cycles, but this methodology does not suffice for athletic textiles. In addition, there is not a robust model nor a repeatable test that mimics high thermomechanical stress on fabrics and provides insights on fabric abrasion resistance. We present a model to calculate the temperatures and strain rates that are seen by fabrics undergoing thermomechanical deformation. To enable validation of the model, a fabric pendulum abrasion tester, an adaptation of the Cooper pendulum skid tester, was developed. The tester characterizes high-strain fabric abrasion deformation. This adaptation is statistically reliable and induces repeatable and realistic fabric failure within tens to hundreds of cycles, proving to be analogous to the loads athletes place on their textiles. Analog electronics on the pendulum abrasion tester generate real-time temperature and velocity profiles. A series of 11 unique athletic fabrics were abrasion tested, and it was found that fabrics with macroporosity experience the largest abrasion degradation. Significant degradation sites were further explored using scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction analysis, and it was shown that thermomechanical loading’s effect on fiber microstructure is a function of the fabric construction. This novel abrasion tester and quantitative relationships between fabric structure and degradation mechanisms will enable more data-driven decisions when designing textiles for thermomechanical loads.

Novel objective test method for the abrasion and pilling behaviour of low basis weight spunbond polypropylene nonwovens

It has been demonstrated that none of the existing testing methods for abrasion resistance is suitable for the testing of low basis weight (areal weight) polypropylene nonwovens in the range of 15 g/m2 to 25 g/m2. Thus, a novel test method has been developed in which the samples are scanned after certain intervals of abrasion cycles on the Martindale abrasion tester using a standard flatbed scanner. From the greyscale images generated, the total pill area and the number of pills can be determined automatically using a simple image evaluation procedure that was optimized in this study. It was possible to objectively determine the influence of pressure, basis weight, test speed and number of test cycles, as well as the influence of aging of the silicone rubber abradant, which is typically used as an abradant to imitate the contact of nonwovens with human skin.

Positive effect of polymeric silane-based water repellent agents on the durability of superhydrophobic fabrics

A series of superhydrophobic polyester fabrics are fabricated via in situ deposition of a sol–gel derived silica primer layer on alkali-treated polyester fabric surfaces and subsequent hydrophobization with silane-based water repellent agents. The contribution of the polymeric silanes on the durability of corresponding superhydrophobic fabrics under mechanical damages (i.e. ultrasonication in THF and Martindale abrasion) has been confirmed, using a small-molecule fluorinated silane (5-(perfluorohexyl)isohexyltrimethoxysilane, FAS) as control. Their water contact angles could still reach at least 137° even after 120 min of ultrasonication in THF and 340 cycles of Martindale abrasion, exhibiting durable water repellency and anti-stain performance. It is acribed to their formation of dense and highly crosslinked hydrophobic layers on the silica modified fabric (SiO2@fabric) surface. Moreover, higher amount of fluorinated monomer unit in the polymeric silanes leads to more efficient hydrophobization of SiO2@fabric and much more durable water repellency for the corresponding superhydrophobic fabrics. The possible mechanism is also proposed.

New insight into compressive shrinkage finishing in a garment company: The effects on physical, mechanical and colorimetric properties of cotton woven fabrics

Compressive shrinkage or compressive shrinkage finishing is one of the most important finishing procedures in the textile industry to improve the dimensional stability of cotton fabrics. Study of the physical and mechanical properties of compressive shrinkage finished fabrics could be useful for optimizing the treatment conditions. This research was carried out in a production line of a recognized garment company on cotton woven fabrics with two different woven patterns (twill and plain). The samples were first dyed with reactive and sulfur dyes in a jigger dyeing machine and finished with a silicone softener. The dried fabrics were then processed in a compressive shrinkage machine. Several physical and mechanical properties of the samples were evaluated including area shrinkage, crimp percentage, thickness, abrasion resistance, drapeability, mechanical and colorimetric properties. The results showed that the thickness of all treated samples increased due to compressive shrinkage. The fabrics were analyzed with a Martindale Abrasion Tester to determine the abrasion resistance. Interestingly, we noted an increase in the abrasion resistance. After the compressive shrinkage process, the strength of the plain woven fabrics decreased in the warp direction, but increased for twill woven cotton fabrics. On the contrary, the strength of all samples increased in the weft direction. Colorimetric evaluation of the samples showed that the effect of compressive shrinkage on the color of all samples was negligible.

Healable superhydrophobicity of novel cotton fabrics modified via one-pot mist copolymerization

We describe a simple one-pot mist copolymerization process to fabricate superhydrophobic cotton fabrics. A mixture solution consisting of a free radical initiator, tert-butyl peroxybenzoate (TBPB), and three monomers, lauryl methacrylate (LMA), 2-isocyanatoethyl methacrylate (IEM), and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGD), is atomized to one side of a cotton fabric and polymerized on the surface. SEM images indicate that the copolymer layer on the cotton fiber surface has a randomly wrinkled morphology exhibiting nanoscale roughness. Wetting tests demonstrate that the modified surface possesses a remarkable superhydrophobicity with multiple healing functionalities. A simple ironing treatment at about 200 °C can recover the degraded superhydrophobicity of the modified cotton fabric suffered from 60 cycles of laundries or 2000 cycles of Martindale abrasion. Notably, the mist copolymerization process has no significant impact on the cotton advantages, such as flexibility, water absorptivity, and vapor permeability.

Wear‐resistant cotton fabrics modified by PU coatings prepared via mist polymerization

ABSTRACTCotton fabric was successfully modified using a simple mist polymerization with polyurethane (PU) prepolymer and ethylene glycol as the monomers. Scanning electron microscope showed the presence of a very thin polymer coating on the cotton fiber surface. Martindale abrasion tests revealed that the thin PU coating imparted to the cotton fabric a doubled wearing durability compared with the original fabric. Additional experiments demonstrated that the mist polymerization has little impact on the desired cotton properties such as water absorptivity, vapor transmissibility, mechanical property, and flexibility. Considering the excellent balance between the enhanced abrasion resistance and the cotton natures, this surface modification methodology has potential to fabricate wearing durable textiles. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci.2016,133, 43024.

Effect of cellusoft enzyme treatment on the pilling performance of weft-knitted fabrics using image analysis

Resistance to pilling is one aspect of quality that controls the appearance of the fabrics. Different method has been used for overcoming the pilling problem of fabrics. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of cellusoft enzyme treatment on the pilling performance of fabrics. For this purpose, different sequence of enzyme application in dyeing was conducted. Two commercial reactive dyes with different chemical structures were used. The pilling resistance of fabrics was assessed using Martindale Wear and Abrasion Tester apparatus, according to ASTM D4970 test method. The number and area of pills on the surface of fabrics were measured using image analysis. The results revealed that the sequence of dyeing and enzyme treatments affect the pilling properties of fabrics.

A biomimetic surface treatment to obtain durable omniphobic textiles

ABSTRACTA bio‐inspired surface treatment to make fabrics omniphobic is reported, exploiting the ability of dopamine – a widespread naturally occurring biological neurotransmitter – to give substrate adhesion and surface immobilization. Standard polyester and polyacrylonitrile fabrics, which are intrinsically rather hydrophilic, are first dip‐coated in an aqueous solution of dopamine and then treated with a fluorocarbon‐based solution. After the treatment, fabrics show a strong omniphobic behavior, while remaining quite permeable to water vapor. The efficiency of the proposed biomimetic treatment is investigated by Optical Contact Angle, Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy (ESEM), and X‐ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS). Moreover, the mechanical durability of the surface treatment is tested through Martindale abrasion resistance measurements. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2015, 132, 42404.

Superamphiphobic Fabrics: Superstrong, Chemically Stable, Superamphiphobic Fabrics from Particle‐Free Polymer Coatings (Adv. Mater. Interfaces 6/2015)

In article 1400559, T. Lin and co-workers demonstrate that superamphiphobic fabrics prepared by a particle-free coating can withstand 98% sulfuric acid, strong alkaline solution (e.g., 40% KOH), at least 800 cycles of machine wash, and 10 000 cycles of Martindale abrasion. The coating is also self-healable against UV damages. It may be useful for developing functional textiles/clothing for personal protective applications.

Interaction of a non-aqueous solvent system on bamboo, cotton, polyester and their blends: the effect on abrasive wear resistance

This article investigates the use of Trichloroacetic acid-Methylene chloride (TCAMC) solvent system with a view to study the abrasive wear resistance of bamboo, cotton, organic cotton, polyester (PES), cotton/bamboo and polyester/cotton blended woven fabrics. The fabrics were treated with different concentrations of 1%, 5% and 10% of TCAMC for 5, 30 and 60mins at room temperature. Martindale Abrasion Tester was employed to test the abrasive wear resistance of fabrics. The weight loss of fabrics was checked after every 1000 abrasive cycles. The results suggest that the bamboo fabric, without TCAMC treatment, possesses an abrasive wear resistance that is comparable to that of organic cotton fabric. However, cotton/bamboo blend fabric was found to have enhanced abrasion wear resistance than that of 100% bamboo fabric. The results also indicate that the TCAMC treatment enhanced the abrasion wear resistance of 100% bamboo and 100% organic cotton fabrics. The treatment does not influence the wear resistance of 100% cotton and its blends. The abrasive wear resistance of untreated polyester (PES) fabric was tested and compared with cellulosics and it was found that PES possessed higher abrasive wear resistance. However, the abrasive wear resistance of TCAMC treated PES decreased considerably.

Robust, Superamphiphobic Fabric with Multiple Self-Healing Ability against Both Physical and Chemical Damages

Superamphiphobic coatings with excellent repellency to low surface tension liquids and multiple self-healing abilities are very useful for practical applications, but remain challenging to realize. Previous papers on self-healing superamphiphobic coatings have demonstrated limited liquid repellency with single self-healing ability against either physical or chemical damage. Herein, we describe a superamphiphobic fabric that has remarkable multi-self-healing ability against both physical and chemical damages. The superamphiphobicity was prepared by a two-step surface coating technique. Fabric after coating treatment showed exceptional liquid-repellency to low surface tension liquids including ethanol. The fabric coating was also durable to withstand 200 cycles of laundries and 5000 cycles of Martindale abrasion without apparently changing the superamphiphobicity. This highly robust, superamphiphobic fabric may find applications for the development of "smart" functional textiles for various applications.

Influence of coating parameters on textile and electrical properties of a poly(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate)/polyurethane-coated textile

Textile coatings with electrical conductivity were obtained by the addition of poly(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene)-poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) and ethylene glycol (EG) to a polyurethane (PU)-based coating formulation. Variations of the coating formulation, the coating amount and the drying conditions, as well as the absence of an annealing step, were investigated. The coated fabrics were evaluated for tear strength and bending rigidity as well as surface resistivity and appearance before and after Martindale abrasion. A high proportion of PEDOT:PSS dispersion in the formulation and the presence of EG provided low surface resistivity. This composition resulted in softer samples with higher tear strength than those containing more PU-binder. All coatings proved to withstand abrasion to a similar extent. The surface resistivity increased gradually with the abrasion, about one half order of magnitude, except for those coatings that had been subjected to a faster drying process, where the surface resistivity increased somewhat faster.