Marriage Migration Research Articles

Globalising Thailand through gendered ‘both-ways’ migration pathways with ‘the West’: cross-border connections between people, states, and places

ABSTRACTThis article explains why significant Thai-Western ‘both-ways’ migration pathways have evolved, grown and sustained over the last decades. It introduces a set of research contributions on transnational social relationships and cross-border connections between people that arise from the increasingly large-scale mobilities and migrations between Thailand and ‘the West’ – countries from Europe, North America and Australia. While Thai and Western people’s social relationships are usually studied as personal stories within a cross-border marriage migration perspective, we consider it necessary to see them as more than marriage migration. Specifically, we argue that the growing ‘both-ways’ Thai-Western migration pathways can only be understood by reference to three features of globalisation processes specific to Thailand: first, cross-border connections and social networks generated by massive West-to-Thailand tourist mobilities that incentivise Western men to see living permanently with a Thai partner as ‘realistic’; second, the radical transformations of Thai rural societies under conditions of economic development that produces ‘surplus’ mobile women; and third, the restrictive state immigration and citizenship regimes in the West and Thailand that leaves few pathways open for migration, other than by ‘marriage’. In sum, Thailand’s specific experience of globalisation is the explanatory backstory to the extraordinary prevalence of Thai-Western ‘both-ways’ migrations.

Legal-discursive constructions of genuine cross-border love in Belgian marriage fraud investigations

ABSTRACTIn recent years, marriage migration as a form of family reunification has become a growing policy concern for migration governance in European member states and is seen as ‘the last loophole’ in EU migration policy in the face of a supposedly large and increasing number of sham marriages through which the non-European spouse is granted a residency permit. Several European nations have therefore legislated legal-administrative measures to battle marriages of convenience by investigating cross-border marriage applications prior to celebrating or recognising the marital union. In this article, I draw on a linguistic ethnographic empirical study of legal-administrative investigations conducted by Belgian municipal authorities to determine whether cross-border marriage applications to their civil registry office are ‘genuine’ or ‘fake’. In particular, I examine how the legal framework and guidelines for investigation are bureaucratically implemented in practice in Belgian civil registry offices with a particular focus on the role of a discursively constructed notion of genuine cross-border love and a bureaucratically acceptable relationship in both policy documents and interviewing practice.

There’s No Place Like Home: Taiwanese Married Women in Hong Kong

This study examines patterns of return migration as a background to understand the intention among marriage migrants to return to their homeland. In a five-year period beginning in 2014, the author conducted qualitative interviews with Taiwanese immigrant women in Hong Kong who had married Hong Kong men and had arrived between 1965 and 2013, to understand major aspects of their adaptation. Despite successful efforts in developing careers, establishing families, and planting new roots by becoming Hong Kongers over the last few decades, a majority of the immigrants wanted to return to Taiwan to luo ye gui gen (落葉歸根, a falling leaf finds its way to its roots). Apart from regarding Taiwan as homeland and retaining a strong sense of belonging, their desire to re-migrate to a more hospitable environment, to enjoy a better quality of life compared to that of Hong Kong, has been spelled out with narratives. Return migration remains a paradox with regard to married women who have accepted patrilocal residence at the start. Whether returns do take place remains to be seen, as return migration in essence also suggests that migration is impermanent and transnational in nature.

In‐between: Re‐migration, orbital mobilities and emotional circulations of women from China to Taiwan and back to China

After a first labour migration from the countryside to the city in China, some Chinese migrant working women are engaged in marriage migration to Taiwan. There, they face social, gendered and economic subalternity. Therefore, some women divorce and re‐migrate to China, to the city they had been previously working in, where they remobilise social, economic and emotional resources, as well as the new competences and knowledge capitalised during mobility experiences in China and Taiwan. They oscillate between new local and global scales, and generate creative social, economic and emotional connections among spaces, places and people. Mobilities take the shape of physical and virtual, material and emotional ‘orbits’, connecting diverse spatialities, temporalities and affections. Drawing on a multi‐situated global ethnographic work tracking women's migrations from China to Taiwan and from Taiwan to China, this article contributes to the study of physical and virtual, material and emotional mobilities of migrants in a globalised social world of interconnection and hypermobility. It provides insights to apprehend, theoretically, methodologically and empirically, the link between mobilities, emotions the digitalisation of social and economic practices. Navigating through spatialities, temporalities and emotions, Chinese women produce ‘in‐between’ cosmopolitan biographies inside mutating and fluid local and global, physical and virtual, spaces. Mobilities take an orbital shape, embedded in social and affectional relations, economic practices, and emotions.

РУССКОГОВОРЯЩИЕ СООБЩЕСТВА В АВСТРИИ И ВЕНГРИИ: ПОДХОДЫ К ИДЕНТИФИКАЦИИ, ОЦЕНКА ЧИСЛЕННОСТИ И СОЦИАЛЬНО-ДЕМОГРАФИЧЕСКАЯ СТРУКТУРА

The article is devoted to the peculiarities of the formation of Russian-speaking communities in two European countries — Austria and Hungary — in the post-Soviet period. Some historical factors of the emergence of Russian-speaking communities in these countries, the current state, popula-tion dynamics and demographic structure are considered. It is noted that in the last decade, both in Austria and Hungary, the interest of Russians as countries of potential emigration has been growing. High standards of quality of life, a stable economy, a favorable climate, and a rich cultural heritage make Austria very attractive to Russians. The relative low cost of living, mild climate, inexpensive real estate and the possibility of registering it as property contribute to the growth of Russian interest in Hungary. The main channels for increasing the number of Russian-speaking communities at present can be considered marriage migration, family reunification, and educational migration. The gender structure is dominated by women. A significant part of the representatives of Russian-speaking communities is well integrated into the host societies. One of the important elements of the interaction of Russian-speaking communities in Austria and Hungary is the Russian language. The article estimates its prevalence based on an analysis of the Russian-language press, social networks, the functioning of schools and Russian language courses.

Challenge to full-time employment of Chinese Female Marriage Migrants with higher levels of education

Challenge to full-time employment of Chinese Female Marriage Migrants with higher levels of education

‘Russian Wives’: at the International Marriage Market

The international marriage market is considered both as a demographic category and as a socio-cultural phenomenon formed under the influence of international migration. The scale of the marriage emigration increased sharply after the collapse of the USSR. ‘Russian wives’ phenomenon has become a kind of sociocultural brand in the international marriage market. It includes women from Russia and post-Soviet countries who speak Russian and have a Slavic appearance. There were four directions of marriage emigration of Russian and Russian-speaking women: North American, European, Asian, and Middle Eastern. Many ‘Russian wives’ are well adapted and successfully integrated in host countries. Some of them face difficulties and barriers: poor language skills, mental and cultural differences. Sometimes misunderstanding leads to a break in relations with husbands. However, Russian and Russian-speaking women rarely return to their homeland in the case of divorce and try to re-find a husband abroad. Marriage emigration of women from Russia in the vast majority of cases becomes irrevocable, and therefore the country loses its female population, its gene pool. The increase of marriage migration has led to establishment of the infrastructure of the marriage market on international scale. In addition the shadow sector of this market was formed represented by groups engaged in illegal activities related to trafficking.

대륙배우자(大陸配偶)는 말한다: 대만내셔널리즘과 중국 출신 결혼이주자의 정치운동

이 연구는 2014~15년 대만에서 일어난 중국 출신 결혼이주자들의 반(反) 해바라기 운동의 사례를 통해 이주자들의 정치운동과 목적국의 관계에 대해 고찰한다. 선행연구에서 이주자들의 정치운동은 목적국의 통치성이 허락하는 한에서 시민사회와의 협력, 국제적 연대를 통해 가능하다고 밝혀 왔다. 그런데 대만의 사례에서는 이주자들의 출신지인 중국과 관련된 대만 정부의 인식과 ‘새로운 대만’을 확립하고자 하는 대만 시민사회의 움직임이 결혼이주자들을 고립시켰다. 그럼에도 불구하고 결혼이주자들은 우호 정당 지지하기, 정당 만들기, 대중강연활동, 모국에 호소하기의 전략을 통해 ‘새로운 대만’에 자신의 존재를 알리는 동시에 반 해바라기 운동에 참여한다. 이러한 중국 출신 결혼이주자(대륙배우자)들의 정치운동은 원하는 바를 얻지 못했다는 점에서는 한계로 남지만, 대륙배우자들의 존재를 각인시켰다는 점에서는 의의를 지닌다.

Contending with neo-classical patriarchal bargain: Filipina marriage migrants’ negotiations for naturalization in South Korea

ABSTRACTThis study examines naturalization choices and processes among Filipina marriage migrants in South Korea. Drawing on interviews with 89 Filipina marriage migrants and nine of their spouses, we show how naturalization can become a site of bargaining where female marriage migrants strategize to maximize security and optimize their life options within a patriarchal host society. Citizenship is, for most marriage migrants, informally tied to their fulfillment of gendered expectations as wives, mothers and daughters-in-laws. As such, Filipina marriage migrants’ political incorporation cannot be separated from their gendered performance in the family. We also examine how personal resources such as education and employment prospects influence migrants’ bargaining potential. By focusing on the different social positions of and resources available to female marriage migrants, we show the complex ways in which both gender and human capital influences marriage migrants’ legal and substantive citizenship.

Mother, wife, or worker: Life course and motivations of remarried Mainland Chinese immigrant women in Hong Kong

AbstractStudies on international marriage examining the motives in women’s marriage and migration decisions have indicated the limitations of the distinction between categories of migrants for marriage and migrant workers. Gender ideologies and immigration policies have accounted for women’s diverse motivations of transnational marriage; however, studies have focused on women in their first marriage, leaving those of remarried women, whose marital and migration decisions are often linked to the welfare and life trajectories of their children underexamined. Systematic investigations of institutional factors other than immigration policies in both receiving and sending countries, particularly post-Socialist societies, that affect their marital and migration decisions, remain limited. This article highlights the significance of life course, families, and gendered institutions in understanding the migratory flows of remarried immigrant wives. Based on in-depth interviews with remarried Mainland Chinese women in Hong Kong, the study argues that the effects of the labour market, local patriarchy, kinship system, and migration control mechanisms in post-Socialist China and Hong Kong on their remarital decisions vary depending on women’s life courses. Their decisions are embedded in their most salient family relationships, particularly young and adolescent biological children, which are interconnected within specific socio-historical contexts. The study contributes to research on gender and migration by demonstrating the heterogeneity of marriage migrants who are not merely wives or workers but also mothers of diverse life courses and the differential effects of gendered institutions on their remarital and migration decisions.

Becoming a citizen through marriage: how gender, ethnicity and class shape the nation

ABSTRACTThe role of marriage in accessing membership entitlements has been studied extensively in the context of marriage migration, but it remains under-researched in the literature on citizenship acquisition. This paper explores specific constructions of deservingness vis-à-vis the foreign spouses of citizens and their marriages in the context of facilitated naturalization in Switzerland. Based on an ethnographic investigation of the naturalization practices of street-level bureaucrats, we show that the politics of belonging in the context of access to citizenship is regulated by intersecting gendered, ethnicized and classed logics of desirability about how a marriage should be. Additionally, a patrilineal logic continues to guide street-level bureaucrats de facto even when legislation has introduced de jure gender equality. Finally, we demonstrate that it is not only immigration regimes, but also citizenship regimes that employ assumptions about what constitutes a ‘good marriage’ in order to draw the boundaries of the nation.

Accessing public healthcare in Oslo, Norway: the experiences of Thai immigrant masseuses

BackgroundThai massage is a highly gendered and culturally specific occupation. Many female Thai masseuses migrate to Norway as marriage migrants and as such are entitled to the same public healthcare as Norwegian citizens. Additionally, anyone who is not fluent in Norwegian is entitled to have an interpreter provided by the public healthcare system. Norway and most other countries aspire to universal health coverage, but certain immigrant populations continue to experience difficulties accessing appropriate healthcare. This study examined healthcare access among Thai migrant masseuses in Oslo.MethodsGuided by access to healthcare theory, we conducted a qualitative exploratory study in 2018 with Thai women working as masseuses in Oslo, Norway. Through semi-structured in-depth interviews with 14 Thai women, we explored access to healthcare, health system navigation and care experiences. We analyzed the data using thematic analysis and grouped the information into themes relevant to healthcare access.ResultsParticipants did not perceive that their occupation limited their access to healthcare. Most of the barriers participants experienced when accessing care were related to persistent language challenges. Women who presented at healthcare facilities with their Norwegian spouse were rarely offered interpreters, despite their husband’s limited capacity to translate effectively. Cultural values inhibit women from demanding the interpretation services to which they are entitled. In seeking healthcare, women sought information about health services from their Thai network and relied on family members, friends and contacts to act as informal interpreters. Some addressed their healthcare needs through self-treatment using imported medication or sought healthcare abroad.ConclusionsDespite having the same entitlements to public healthcare as Norwegian citizens, Thai migrants experience difficulties accessing healthcare due to pervasive language barriers. A significant gap exists between the official policy that professional interpreters should be provided and the reality experienced by study participants. To improve communication and equitable access to healthcare for Thai immigrant women in Norway, health personnel should offer professional interpreters and not rely on Norwegian spouses to translate. Use of community health workers and outreach through Thai networks, may also improve Thai immigrants’ knowledge and ability to navigate the Norwegian healthcare system.

書評：堀江未央著『娘たちのいない村 ――ヨメ不足の連鎖をめぐる雲南ラフの民族誌――』

書評：堀江未央著『娘たちのいない村 ――ヨメ不足の連鎖をめぐる雲南ラフの民族誌――』

Learning Korean and Imagined Gendered Identities in the Autobiographical Narratives of Marriage Migrant Women in South Korea

Learning Korean and Imagined Gendered Identities in the Autobiographical Narratives of Marriage Migrant Women in South Korea

Gender imbalance in China’s marriage migration: Quantitative evidence and policy implications

While gender-imbalanced marriage migration across borders and regions and its socioeconomic impacts have been widely reported in developing nations, this paper reports empirical findings based on data from China since 1980. China’s international marriages were characterized with more than 95% of brides from mainland China in the 1980s but the proportion has dropped gradually to around 60% in recent years. Analysis of China’s census data and a panel dataset from Shanghai suggests that proportionally more women migrated from relatively less-developed to more-developed regions through marriage and the variation in income across regions is the key factor behind the migration pattern. China’s gender-imbalanced marriage migration has caused problems such as male marriage squeeze in poor rural areas and “leftover women” in large cities like Shanghai. Policies for poverty reduction and more balanced economic development across regions are recommended for reducing such gender imbalance and the associated socioeconomic problems.

“We no longer fear brides from afar”: Marriage markets and gendered mobilities in rural Vietnam

Since the late 1990s, Vietnamese women’s participation in international marriage migration has garnered academic and media attention. In contrast, internal marriage migration, a key driver of overall internal migration flows, has received scant consideration. In this paper, we examine marriage and migration dynamics in four rural communes that have “lost” significant numbers of their single women to international marriage and gained brides through internal migration. Based on ethnographic fieldwork conducted in 2012 and 2013 in four villages and analysis of local marriage registration data and census data, this article examines internal and international marriage migration. We probed marriage migration vis-a-vis marriage markets, internal labor migration and gendered mobility patterns. The increased diversification of marriage with respect to spousal places of origin indicates a reconfiguration of marital norms and practices and changing social constructions of a desirable wife and daughter-in-law. Results underscore the role of labor migration and interprovincial networks in expanding mate-seeking circles among rural youth and in altering marital norms. Female international marriage migration is one piece of a larger puzzle whereby various forms of mobility are intertwined with changes in the realms of gender, family and marriage.

Alternative spatial hierarchies: a cross-border spouse’s positioning strategies in the face of Germany’s ‘pre-integration’ language test

ABSTRACT This paper examines how spouses waiting in Turkey to be reunited with their partner in Europe experience border regimes and deal with the transnationalised discourses on ‘marriage migrants’ they encounter. It is based on the analysis of a single narrative interview, that of a woman taking German classes at Goethe Institute in Istanbul in order to pass the required language test. Like other respondents, she is confronted with negative gendered preconceptions regarding ‘Turkish import brides’. Her boundary work involves mobilising alternative hierarchies in an attempt to discursively construct a different Turkey than the one generally represented: she draws on social class (positioning herself as a member of the highly educated, mobile and economically better off), socio-spatial units (focusing on her urbanity) and gender (experiencing ‘modern’ and equal gender relationships). The paper emphasises the importance of the socio-spatial context, here the classroom, where boundary-making takes place. It also provides insights into the effects of global spatial hierarchies on migrants and their alternative narratives, a dimension that can only be understood through a decentred analysis. The article contributes to studies on cross-border marriages by analysing the ‘outgoing’ side, a perspective still rarely addressed in the literature.

Subversive citizens: using EU free movement law to bypass the UK’s rules on marriage migration

ABSTRACT In 2012, new and restrictive spousal reunification laws were implemented in the UK. EU free movement rules, however, have enabled British citizens to circumvent those restrictions by residing for a period in another Member State, and then returning with their family member to the UK. The article examines the resulting tension between national and EU law. It explores use of the Surinder Singh route (named after the court case which established the rule) against a background in which a much wider group of British citizens than previously are now ineligible for family reunification under national laws. The route is perceived as a threat to government authority in a critical area of national sovereignty, as demonstrated by its invocation in the Brexit process. The article draws on interviews with twenty families who used or planned to use the route and discusses how it provides a safety valve for those with high cultural, but insufficient economic, capital to fulfil the domestic rules. It provides insight into how legal categories are fluid and contingent, demanding analytical flexibility and awareness of their dynamic effect on the lives of marriage migrants and sponsors.

When men migrate for marriage: negotiating partnerships and gender roles in cross-border marriages between rural Kosovo and the EU

ABSTRACT In Western hegemonic discourses, cross-border marriages in which ethnic minority members, especially Muslims, take a partner from a ‘country of origin’ are framed as patriarchal and backward and women are portrayed as victims within such marriages. Based on long-term ethnographic fieldwork, the article focuses on the marriages of men from rural Kosovo, who have moved to Austria or Germany because they married a woman from a ‘Kosovan’ background, and on the gender roles that are negotiated here. The men in these cross-border marriages do not fit into the dominant Western image of ‘patriarchal’ ethnic-minority men. After migration, married male migrants find themselves in multiple dependencies and take up diverse roles that are framed by their educational profiles and economic performance, by the support they receive from their wives, as well as the diverse and partly translocal social fields they relate to. Depending on their social position, male marriage migrants may be doubly marginalised, by the majority society as well as within their ethnic communities. But men with higher education who successfully integrated into the labour market may also set up intra-ethnic boundaries, be it to members of their rural community in Kosovo or within ethnic-minority communities in Austria or Germany.

Buy me love: entanglements of citizenship, income and emotions in regulating marriage migration

ABSTRACT This article looks at the entanglements of income and love in the implementation of family reunification legislation by Finnish immigration bureaucrats and administrative courts, and specifically the ways in which the requirements to display a ‘real’ relationship and the income requirement play out for citizens and non-citizens. This is not as straightforward as it seems – both elements, emotions and income, play a role even in cases in which they are not officially part of the requirements. Citizens and non-citizens can mobilise different arguments when trying to convince the authorities that their relationship is real. Even if citizens have a wider array of arguments they can use, such as leveraging a low income that forces them to live under certain conditions, it seems that their unions are scrutinised more carefully, and they also have more difficulties in obtaining a residence permit. For cases in which both partners are non-citizens, the income requirement overrides questions of emotional attachment even in cases that involve children. The results of this article point to the need for more detailed research on the workings of immigration legislation on the ground, in particular, in regard to citizenship.