Marked Trees Research Articles

Маркування ведмедем (Ursus arctos) дерев у Чорнобильському біосферному заповіднику

For the first time in the Ukrainian Polissia and the Chornobyl Radiation and Ecological Biosphere Reserve (ChREBR), a concentrated linear distribution of bear-marked spruce trees was found at the abandoned estates of the village of Opachychi along the second terrace of the Prypiat River floodplain. Individual sightings of bears (Ursus arctos) in the Ukrainian Polissia have been known since the 1990s, but there are no reliable data on the reproduction of this species. The abundance of bears in Belarus has increased in recent years, which leads to the possibility of females coming to the Polissia from the north. Dried spruce trees without resin were not marked by the bear, and the animal moved on to live trees. Friction and more intensive marking of trees was recorded mainly in the eastern direction. Most of the marked spruce trees were upright with no branches to the height of the marking. The intensive marking behaviour of bears in 2023 in the ChREBR can be considered as the appearance of a female, as signalling to a female, and as a sign of dominance towards a male competitor. Two adult males were observed near one of the marked trees (data from amateurs). Special field surveys are needed to identify females with cubs to confirm or refute the hypothesis that the intensity of bear marking can be used in the event of the presence of a female bear in oestrus. Along the bear-marked trees in the village of Opachychi of the ChPEBR, an ecological trail and a visitor centre of large carnivores and herbivores should be created, which would be popular destinations. It is advisable to arrange a location for wildlife observations in an abandoned house for photo and video shooting, as is usually done in Sweden, Bulgaria, Romania, and Spain. In such tours, the effectiveness of the observation is not guaranteed and only preliminary statistics of wildlife encounters are provided. For this purpose, it is advisable to create two feeding areas for predatory mammals with dry food, as well as a salt marsh and a feeding trough for ungulates. The majority of the ChREBR territory has a low incidence of markings. The bear in the Polissia, as elsewhere in Europe, is expanding its range naturally, but at a slow pace due to the low intensity of female dispersal. Tree marking by bears was also observed in Chernihiv Oblast, in the Mizhrichynskyi Regional Landscape Park. It is advisable to release several bears in the ChEBR to create a reproductive centre for this species in the Polissia.

Automatic detection of color markings and numbers on trees in point clouds from Personal Laser Scanning (PLS) and Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS)

In forestry, colored spray paint is used for different purposes, such as marking trees that are chosen for the next harvest or that will be promoted by future silvicultural activities, or for the demarcation of skid/cable roads. Numerous studies have demonstrated the application of Terrestrial Laser Scanners (TLS) and Personal Laser Scanners (PLS) for the acquisition of tree parameters (diameters, heights, and tree positions) in a forest inventory context. However, no studies have included classification based on spectral information by applying colored markings to trees. When a laser scanner is combined with a camera, the color information can be mapped onto the laser point cloud, allowing for additional analysis of spectral information. In this study, we have tested the analysis of joint information from imagery and 3D point clouds in two different settings: (i) PLS point cloud data from a GeoSLAM ZEB Horizon were complemented with spectral information from images collected with a NCTech iSTAR Pulsar 360-degree camera, (ii) TLS point cloud data from a RIEGL VZ-400i were combined with imagery from a Nikon D850 digital single lens reflex (DSLR) camera with 14 mm fisheye lens. The major objective was to automatically classify trees that were marked with colored sprays automatically identify the numbers sprayed on the trees. The marked trees could be classified correctly with a balanced accuracy of 77.26% for PLS and 98.01% for the data collected with the TLS system using a support vector machine (SVM) model. The numbers written on the trees were classified from the TLS data using a YOLOv8 model. The accuracy of the digit classification reached up to 97.30%. In conclusion, it is possible to automatically detect marked trees and to automatically recognize the numbers spayed on these trees from colored point cloud data. However, accuracy strongly depends on the selected combination of scanner and camera. The findings of future research on this subject might differ with the ongoing development of PLS systems and could be enhanced by creating a large dataset of handwritten numbers collected using laser scanning systems.

Insights into marking behavior of giant anteaters: a camera trap study in the rupununi savannahs, Guyana

Abstract The Giant Anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla), facing threats from habitat degradation and hunting, remains a species of enigmatic behavior. This study analyzed camera trap data collected over 7700 camera trap nights in 49 stations near marked trees in Southern Guyana. A total of 883 Giant Anteater sightings were recorded, categorized into solitary adults (797), females with offspring (70), solitary juveniles (8), and paired adults (6). Meticulous observations documented various behaviors, distinguishing chemical (sniffing) and visual (scratching, climbing, hugging, rubbing) tree-marking from non-tree-marking behaviors (foraging, self-scratching, rolling, urinating/defecating). For solitary individual, a PCA revealed an inverse correlation between ignoring and sniffing (explaining 33.64 % of PC1), suggesting individuals engage in one behavior per observation. We observed an inverse correlation between hug/scratch/rub and climb (20.75 % of PC2). A weighted PCA assessing correlations by social categories, distinguishing marking behaviors from ignoring the tree (explaining 95.6 % of PC1). Scratching trees without climbing or hugging occurred from 3 pm to 1 am, with climbing most frequent between 8 and 10 pm. These behaviors were common during peak anteater sightings, peaking in May, with fewer observations in September. Overall, Giant Anteaters exhibit tree-marking behaviors, including scratching, climbing, and hugging and that a primary purpose for this behavior is communication.

Species diversity and distribution pattern of venerable trees in tropical Jianfengling National Forest Park (Hainan, China)

Venerable trees are precious natural-cum-cultural heritage and an important component of regional biodiversity, with significant social, cultural and ecological values. A thorough understanding of their spatial patterns in relation to environmental factors can foster co-management for conservation and sustainable resource use. The Jianfengling National Forest Park in tropical China is a unique and rare primary tropical forest protected area with exceptionally high biodiversity and a rich endowment of venerable trees. This study evaluated the venerable tree stock regarding botanical makeup and factors shaping spatial patterns. We collected detailed tree data (species, age, dimensions, location, etc.) and environmental variables (elevation, slope and soil). The environmental variations were analyzed concerning tree abundance, species richness and tree age. The results identified 2134 venerable trees from 72 species, 55 genera and 30 families. Lithocarpus fenzelianus dominated with maximum importance value, followed by Cyclobalanopsis patelliformis, Madhuca hainanensis, Altingia obovata and Castanopsis tonkinensis. The top-ranking species were predominantly Fagaceae members. The age pattern demonstrated an inverted J-shape, with mainly 100-299 years trees and a few >500 years. DBH, tree height, and crown width displayed an approximately normal distribution. Spatial distributions by age tiers were uneven, with more in the northeast part. The altitudinal gradient significantly influenced the spatial patterns of tree abundance and species richness. The unimodal distribution marked tree and species concentration at circa 600 m mid-elevation. The findings have implications for venerable-tree conservation and management in tropical protected areas with similar threatened and remnant-tree status.

Fruit characteristics and phenology Tahiti lime in two Colombian environments

The surge in Tahiti lime exports over the past year, combined with heightened quality standards of the international market, have made it necessary to improve production processes to obtain fruit with increasingly better organoleptic characteristics. Thus, the foundation lies in selecting a property with suitable edaphoclimatic conditions and possessing precise knowledge of the ecophysiological behavior of the tree in these specific conditions. This study aimed to document the flowering phenology and study the physicochemical characteristics of Tahiti lime fruits in two environments in the Andean region of Colombia. Evaluations were conducted on eight Tahiti lime trees (ten-year-old) per orchard grafted on Sunki x English. Observations were made for 12 months of the buds, flowers and fruits of the marked trees in each evaluated area (Manizales – 2280 m asl and Santagueda 1010 m asl). The flowering phenology according to the stages of the BBCH phenological scale, the physical-chemical characteristics of the fruit, and the climatic conditions of the two areas were evaluated. A completely randomized experimental design and Duncan's comparison of means were used. Significant differences were found in polar diameter, ascorbic acid, soluble solids, juice yield, shell mass, and titratable acidity according to locality. The Phenology of flowering took less time, and the accumulation of heat units was higher in the lower altitude zone. The physical and chemical characteristics of Tahiti lime fruits are influenced by the environment in which the trees develop.

Signal detection theory applied to giant pandas: Do pandas go out of their way to make sure their scent marks are found?

Inter-animal communication allows signals released by an animal to be perceived by others. Scent-marking is the primary mode of such communication in giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). Signal detection theory propounds that animals choose the substrate and location of their scent marks so that the signals released are transmitted more widely and last longer. We believe that pandas trade-off scent-marking because they are an energetically marginal species and it is costly to generate and mark chemical signals. Existing studies only indicate where pandas mark more frequently, but their selection preferences remain unknown. This study investigates whether the marking behavior of pandas is consistent with signal detection theory. Feces count, reflecting habitat use intensity, was combined with mark count to determine the selection preference for marking. The results showed that pandas preferred to mark ridges with animal trails and that most marked tree species were locally dominant. In addition, marked plots and species were selected for lower energy consumption and a higher chance of being detected. Over 90% of the marks used were the longest-surviving anogenital gland secretion marks, and over 80% of the marks were oriented toward animal trails. Our research demonstrates that pandas go out of their way to make sure their marks are found. This study not only sheds light on the mechanisms of scent-marking by pandas but also guides us toward more precise conservation of the panda habitat.

Een boom op Walcheren, meer dan een stip op de (Bonne)kaart

A tree on Walcheren, more than a dot on the (historical) map Topographical maps, even when consulted numerous times, can suddenly reveal a name, a number, an element never noticed before. The so-called Bonnekaart (page 616, edition 1926) shows the word ‘Boom’ (tree), halfway Vrouwenpolder and Veere, on the north-eastern coast of Walcheren (Zeeland). Which function can be attributed to this specific and marked tree to legitimate it being mentioned on the map? In this article we distinguish and judge several possibilities.

Cheetah marking sites are also used by other species for communication: evidence from photographic data in a comparative setup

Many mammalian species communicate via olfactory communication placed at particular locations. The majority of these studies focused on intraspecific communication. More recently, studies have also investigated interspecific communication and recorded prey animals sniffing olfactory cues left by predators and predators investigating or counter-marking cues left by other predator species. The purpose of exchanging olfactory cues within a species community is little understood. Using a comparative study design, we investigated the behaviour of a mammalian community at cheetah marking trees and paired control trees using camera traps on Namibian farmland. We tested the predictions derived from hypotheses regarding the reasons for visits to the marking trees. Cheetah marking trees and control trees were visited 1101 times by 29 mammalian species (excluding cheetahs), with more species recorded at the marking trees than control trees. Two competitively subordinate carnivore species made more visiting and sniffing events, respectively, at cheetah marking trees than control trees, possibly to assess the time since cheetahs were in the area. Two opportunistic scavenger species sniffed more frequently at the marking trees than control trees, perhaps to feed on undigested prey remains in scats. One common prey species of cheetahs had fewer visiting events at the marking trees than control trees, likely to reduce encounters with cheetahs. Further, one species that is rarely preyed by cheetahs marked cheetah marking trees at the same frequency as control trees, suggesting it uses conspicuous sites rather for intraspecific than interspecific communication. Thus, trees used by cheetahs for marking also play an important role in olfactory communication for a variety of mammalian species.

Recommendations for non-lethal monitoring of tree wētā (Hemideina spp.) using artificial galleries

ABSTRACT Wildlife sanctuaries in Aotearoa/New Zealand involve community groups that often prefer using non-lethal monitoring methods for invertebrates. We examined one method for monitoring tree wētā with the aim of improving monitoring design. Pest management at our study site did not vary for 10 years before our study and remained unchanged between sampling, so we assumed that abundance of tree wētā would not vary significantly over the four years of the study. We recorded occupancy and marked every tree wētā (Hemideina spp.) using the same set of 38 artificial tree-hole refuges (galleries) every 1–2 weeks. We tested the prediction that non-lethal monitoring of tree wētā is a suitable proxy for relative wētā abundance by comparing the number of tree wētā using the same galleries four years apart. As expected, no change in numbers of wētā was detected. However, the level of site/gallery fidelity, seasonal fluctuations and movement between artificial galleries suggest that monitoring design needs to incorporate the life history and behaviour of these insects. We recommend comparison of wētā occupancy be restricted to the same season, galleries be placed more than 50 m apart and checked only once or twice a year.

Fuelwood Production and Carbon Sequestration in Public Urban Green Spaces in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe

Trees in public urban green spaces provide a variety of ecosystem goods and services that are greatly appreciated by urban residents. A commonly used good, especially in Global South regions, is that of fuelwood for household energy needs. Yet the production potential of fuelwood from public urban green spaces has rarely been examined. This study quantifies the fuelwood production and allied carbon sequestration potential of 12 public urban green spaces in Bulawayo (Zimbabwe) stratified across neighborhoods of different housing densities. We estimated tree density in the green spaces by means of line transects, and annual production through estimates of the mean annual increment of a sample of marked trees. We found that Bulawayo’s public green spaces produce 1.9 t/ha/yr of fuelwood with a value of $340 to $490/ha/yr, and that production varied across spaces and housing density neighborhoods. This production is much lower than the documented demand but it is likely to be significant for fuelwood-dependent households. In contrast, the amount (1010 ± 160 kg/ha/yr) and value (US$4.04/ha/yr) of carbon sequestration were lower. Formal public green spaces produced more fuelwood as compared to informal green spaces and no difference was evident in tree growth rates between exotic and indigenous tree species. This is one of the first studies to show the value of the fuelwood production and carbon sequestration potential of public green spaces in the region and continent and requires that they are integrated into public urban green space policies, planning, and management in the city.

Variability Patterns in Guava (Psidium guajava L.) Seedlings Progenie for Growth and Leaf Parameters

The present study was conducted to assess variation among existing guava trees of seedling origin. During 2018, a total of 60 healthy seedling guava of trees were marked for study. Marked trees were observed to be erect, spreading and drooping in growth habit, varying in tree height (4.0–10.9m), trunk girth (40.3–114.3 cm), extension growth of twigs (15.4–22.5 cm) and fruit yield (15.4–32.8 kg/tree). The variation was observed in shape of the leaf (round, ovate, obtrullate, obovate and oblong), colour of mature leaf (green to dark green), leaf area (34.42–55.22 cm2 ) and leaf chlorophyll index (32.30-54.80 SPAD meter).Based on overall distinguishing qualities, four of the 60 guava seedling trees tested were identified as "elite."These high-variation traits will be used in a guava breeding programme to select top types, genotypes and vegetatively replicate them on a commercial scale.

The comparison of population structure and distribution of thalli <i>Evernia prunastri</i> (L.) Ach. along the trunk of Tilia cordata in a shaded floodplain lime-tree forest for 2008–2017

The research was carried out in shaded flooded lime-tree forest on the territory of the Mari El Republic. Population density, ontogenetic structure of populations and thalli vitality of E. prunastri were explored on 19 marked trees of heart-leaved linden on different tree trunk heights (00,5 m, 0,51 m, 11,5 m, 1,52 m) and on different expositions (north, east, south, west). For the period from 2008 to 2017 an increase in the population density of E. prunastri was founded. These differences appear at the trunk height of 1,52 m. Thalli were not founded at the height of 00,5 m. No changes in the distribution of thalli by exposure in different years were revealed. The most of E. prunastri thalli grow on the northern exposure. In 2017 in the population the specimens share of v₁, v₂ and g₂v of ontogenetic states increases and the specimens share of g₁v decreases. The average vitality of E. prunastri thalli decreases, the deterioration of vitality is more pronounced among individuals in g₁v-ss ontogenetic states. An increase in the population density, a decrease in the size of the E. prunastri thalli and Hypogymnia physodes, a rejuvenation of the ontogenetic structure of the E. prunastri thalli were shown earlier for the illuminated floodplain lime forest. Similar processes in different environmental conditions and in different species indicate regular changes in the populations of epiphytic lichens, which can be caused by climate warming.

Assessment of Ponderosa Pine Vigor Using Four-Band Aerial Imagery in South Central Oregon: Crown Objects to Landscapes

Ponderosa pine is an integral part of the forested landscape in the western US; it is the dominant tree species on landscapes that provide critical ecosystem services. Moderate drought tolerance allows it to occupy the transition zone between forests, open woodlands, and grasslands. Increases in stand density resulting from wildfire suppression, combined with lengthening, intensifying, and more frequent droughts have resulted in reduced tree vigor and stand health in dry ponderosa pine throughout its range. To address a management need for efficient landscape-level surveys of forest health, we used Random Forests to develop an object-oriented classification of individual tree crowns (ITCs) into vigor classes using existing, agency-acquired four-band aerial imagery. Classes of tree vigor were based on quantitative physiological and morphological attributes established in a previous study. We applied our model across a landscape dominated by ponderosa pine with a variety of forest treatments to assess their impacts on tree vigor and stand health. We found that stands that were both thinned and burned had the lowest proportion of low-vigor ITCs, and that stands treated before the 2014–2016 drought had lower proportions of low-vigor ITCs than stands treated more recently (2016). Upland stands had significantly higher proportions of low-vigor trees than lowland stands. Maps identifying the low-vigor ITCs would assist managers in identifying priority stands for treatment and marking trees for harvest or retention. These maps can be created using already available imagery and GIS software.

Within-stand temporal and spatial dynamics of tree neighbourhood density and species composition: even-agedvssingle-tree selection forests

AbstractTree neighbourhood conditions vary greatly through time for individual trees and throughout a forest at any given time. Therefore, many trees experience very different neighbourhood conditions to the stand mean. Although changes in stand density or species composition are often recommended to mitigate the effects of global change on forest functioning, these recommendations are often based on stand means and lack guidance on acceptable variability around the means or acceptable ranges in neighbourhood conditions. This study examined how the spatial and temporal variability in tree neighbourhood conditions varies between species and with stand structural characteristics. A trees neighbourhood, defined by all trees within a 10-m radius, was quantified in terms of basal area GN, relative height rhN (tree height divided by mean height of all trees in neighbourhood), species proportion PropN and species richness RN. Weibull functions were used to describe the frequency distributions of GN, rhN, PropN and RN within the stands. Equations were developed to describe the Weibull shape, scale and location parameters as functions of the species, stand basal area, mean tree diameter and management (even-aged vs single-tree selection forests). All of these variables significantly influenced the frequency distributions of neighbourhood characteristics. These equations can be used to show the proportion of trees experiencing significantly higher or lower values of a given characteristic than the stand mean or other threshold values relevant for management objectives. Single-tree selection forests had much greater ranges in neighbourhoods. There were also large temporal changes in tree neighbourhoods, especially in single-tree selection forests. Large trees had not experienced better neighbourhood conditions than smaller trees of approximately the same age, when considered over the long-term. Given that foresters typically consider tree neighbourhoods when marking trees for thinning, and that trees respond to tree neighbourhood conditions rather than to mean stand conditions, stand-level recommendations may be easier to transfer into practice and to interpret, when accompanied by neighbourhood-level information that indicates the distribution of neighbourhoods that actually exist within a stand.

Increasing rates of subalpine tree mortality linked to warmer and drier summers

Abstract Warming temperatures and rising moisture deficits are expected to increase the rates of background tree mortality–low amounts of tree mortality (~0.5%–2% year−1), characterizing the forest demographic processes in the absence of abrupt, coarse‐scale disturbance events (e.g. fire). When compounded over multiple decades and large areas, even minor increases in background tree mortality (e.g. <0.5% year−1) can cause changes to forest communities and carbon storage potential that are comparable to or greater than those caused by disturbances. We examine how temporal variability in rates of background tree mortality for four subalpine conifers reflects variability in climate and climate teleconnections using observations of tree mortality from 1982 to 2019 at Niwot Ridge, Colorado, USA. Individually marked trees (initial population 5,043) in 13 permanent plots—located across a range of site conditions, stand ages and species compositions—were censused for new mortality nine times over 37 years. Background tree mortality was primarily attributed to stress from unfavourable climate and competition (71.2%) and bark beetle activity (23.3%), whereas few trees died from wind (5.3%) and wildlife impacts (0.2%). Mean annualized tree mortality attributed to tree stress and bark beetles more than tripled across all stands between initial censuses (0.26% year−1, 1982–1993/1994) and recent censuses (0.82% year−1, 2008–2019). Higher rates of tree mortality were related to warmer maximum summer temperatures, greater summer moisture deficits, and negative anomalies in ENSO (La Niña), with greater effects of drought in some subpopulations (tree size, age and species). For example, in older stands (>250 years), larger and older trees were more likely to die than smaller and younger trees. Differences in tree mortality rates and sensitivity to climate among subpopulations that varied by stand type may lead to unexpected shifts in stand composition and structure. Synthesis. A strong relationship between higher rates of tree mortality and warmer, drier summer climate conditions implies that climate warming will continue to increase background mortality rates in subalpine forests. Combined with increases in disturbances and declining frequency of moist‐cool years suitable for seedling establishment, increasing rates of tree mortality have the potential to drive declines in subalpine tree populations.

Rubbing behavior of European brown bears: factors affecting rub tree selectivity and density.

Scent-mediated communication is considered the principal communication channel in many mammal species. Compared with visual and vocal communication, odors persist for a longer time, enabling individuals to interact without being in the same place at the same time. The brown bear (Ursus arctos), like other mammals, carries out chemical communication, for example, by means of scents deposited on marking (or rub) trees. In this study, we assessed rub tree selectivity of the brown bear in the predominantly deciduous forests of the Cantabrian Mountains (NW Spain). We first compared the characteristics of 101 brown bear rub trees with 263 control trees. We then analyzed the potential factors affecting the density of rub trees along 35 survey routes along footpaths. We hypothesized that: (1) bears would select particular trees, or tree species, with characteristics that make them more conspicuous; and (2) that bears would select trees located in areas with the highest presence of conspecifics, depending on the population density or the position of the trees within the species’ range. We used linear models and generalized additive models to test these hypotheses. Our results showed that brown bears generally selected more conspicuous trees with a preference for birches (Betula spp.). This choice may facilitate the marking and/or detection of chemical signals and, therefore, the effectiveness of intraspecific communication. Conversely, the abundance of rub trees along footpaths did not seem to depend on the density of bear observations or their relative position within the population center or its border. Our results suggest that Cantabrian brown bears select trees based on their individual characteristics and their location, with no influence of characteristics of the bear population itself. Our findings can be used to locate target trees that could help in population monitoring.

Anthropocene Historicity: Charles Chesnutt and the Politics of Race and Timber

This article brings together the political and environmental concerns of Black studies and ecocriticism, specifically examining the relationship between racial capitalism and the timber industry in the post-Reconstruction South. Drawing on Charles Chesnutt’s sustained interest in the figure of the tree, I argue Chesnutt’s fiction blurs the lines between the Black laboring body and the tree, revealing the ways in which the timber industry and racial capitalism curtailed the landscape and opportunities for recently freed African Americans. From “Po’ Sandy” (1888) to The Marrow of Tradition (1901) to “The Marked Tree” (1924), Chesnutt describes the evolving political and environmental landscape of the South. This expanded reading of Chesnutt’s critical environmental history excavates a key historicity of the Anthropocene and, as such, illuminates Chesnutt’s complicated articulation of political justice in times of crisis—a poignant concern for critiques of racial capitalism in the age of climate change.

Scent communication behavior by giant pandas

Behavioral strategies used in scent communication can reflect the adaptive capacity of animals. Signal detection theory and the principle of least effort posit that scent marking must be efficient and energy maximizing. The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is a solitary species that relies heavily on scent communication. There have been few studies on scent communication of wild pandas due to their elusive nature. To deepen the understanding of scent communication in this vulnerable species, we analyze a novel dataset obtained from integrating transect surveys on scent marked trees with infrared camera trapping of wild giant pandas performing scent marking and scent investigation behaviors. We found that pandas selected large coniferous trees for scent marking relative to what was available. Of the scent marked trees, trees that were more frequently marked than others were those of preferred species, high elevation, at topographical aspects conducive for odor transmission, with larger surrounding trees, and at gentle slopes. There were three peaks in the frequency of scent communication throughout the year in October, December, and March, the third period overlapping with the mating season. Scent communication occurred mainly during daytime hours, peaking at dusk (18:00–20:00). Frequency of anogenital gland secretion (AGS) markings were significantly greater than urine markings during the mating season but not during other times of year, which may reflect their stronger capacity to convey estrus state of females during mating season. The findings enrich the understanding of giant panda scent communication, and more broadly emphasize the importance of considering scent communication for conservation efforts such as corridor design for this vulnerable species.

Climate changes and trends in phenology of Cassia fistula L. in Agra (India)—1965-2019

Aim. The phenological observations help in identifying how plant species respond to regional climatic changes in particular such as ambient temperature. The study of trends in phenology of Cassia fistula L. (Caesalpiniaceae, Fabaceae) to climate changes in Agra (India) was the aim of the researches. Methods. The data on the average annual temperature in India and Agra were collected for 1965 to 2019 from the Meteorological Department. Commencement of leaf fall, time of new flush of leaves, flowering period (initiation, full bloom, and end) and the rest of phenophases in trees planted at Raja Balwant Singh College (Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India) were recorded from 25 marked trees during 1965–2019. Results. In C. fistula trees leaf fall started in the second and third week of February. Trees became completely leaf-less at the beginning of March. Flowering commenced in the first week of March, and the trees were in full bloom during the second week of March. Flowering continued till the beginning of May, and it was over in the second week of June. Fruiting commenced in December and continued till April. The timing of phenological events was consistent in 1965–2000. However, after 2001, there was a gradual shift recorded, and the shift was evident in 2009–2019. During the period 1965–2008, the average annual temperature ranged between 23.23o–25.13oC there was a liner increase in the temperature. The increase in average yearly temperature became more pronounced in 2009, and this trend is rising in temperature continued till 2019. In Agra in 2009–2019, temperature increase by 0.75–1.0oC had been recorded. The shift of phenoevents in C. fistula is correlated with the rise in annual average temperature. Conclusions. The shift in the timing of various phenoevents is the trees of C. fistula at Agra (India) are influenced by the change in the climate and rise in temperature. It is suggested that a phenological model should be developed to estimate the impact of climate change on fruit trees, horticultural plants and crops development in different regions of India.

Geologic impacts and calculated magnitudes of historic earthquakes in the central United States

The New Madrid Seismic Zone, located in the central United States, produced five earthquakes in 1811–1812, 1843, and 1895, ranging from strong to major. A recurrence of its activity would cause substantial damage to the central U.S., but the magnitude of the most likely event is debatable. Accounting for 0.2 s spectral accelerations (SA) and peak ground velocities (PGV) with the local geologic conditions, this study offered methods for estimating the moment magnitudes (M) of these earthquakes. We analyzed 0.2 s SA and PGV and compared these data with the reported Modified Mercalli Intensities. Our estimates are M 7.6, 7.5, and 7.7 for the three 1811–1812 mainshocks in order of quake occurrence; M 6.2 for the 1843 Marked Tree, Arkansas; and M 6.7 for the 1895 Charleston, Missouri, earthquakes. These estimates are comparable to or exceed most previous approximations. Accordingly, potential liquefaction and resultant ground failure may affect most unconsolidated sediments throughout the central United States.