Marine Environmental Impact Research Articles

Assessment of marine and urban-industrial environmental impact on stone acting as the base of a quaternary bronze sculpture

This work investigates the influence of a marine and urban-industrial environment on the deterioration of a funerary memorial in Getxo (Basque Country, Spain). The sculpture and artificial stone materials as well as their degradation products were characterised via a multi-analytical approach. An in situ characterisation of the bronze statue and its artificial limestone base was carried out with portable Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (ED-XRF) and Raman spectrometers. In addition, several samples of white crusts as well as metal runoff crusts and biological patina were collected and some of them were prepared as cross-sections. High Resolution Micro-X-ray fluorescence and micro-Raman spectroscopy were used as non-destructive methods to detect original and degradation compounds. The test of soluble salts was also carried out on the samples and ion chromatography was employed in the laboratory. Exclusively calcite salt-efflorescences were found at the monument side with ED-XRF and Raman spectroscopy. While their morphology was compact at unsheltered sites, they showed a lamellar structure at sheltered locations, whose increased volume strongly influences the destruction of the memorial. The spectroscopic characterization of metal runoff showed that its excessive occurrence on the memorial surface was due to the dissolution of the copper-alloy caused by chemical reactivity with the surrounding acidic atmosphere. The formation of brochantite Cu4(SO4)(OH)6, posnjakite Cu4(SO4)(OH)6·(H2O), langite Cu4(SO4)(OH)6·2(H2O), or malachite Cu2(CO3)(OH)2 was favored exclusively in metal runoff crusts at unsheltered locations. However, much thinner crusts collected at sheltered sites showed a different composition, with copper species such as moolooite (Cu(C2O4)·nH2O) and atacamite Cu2Cl(OH)3. The soluble salt extraction showed a variable concentration of soluble ions depending on the area where the samples come from. The sample from north west sheltered location showed the highest content of sulfate, nitrate and chloride compounds. In addition, the concentration of fluoride and nitrate reflects the impact of contamination of surrounding industries.

Marine exploration and its environmental impact assessment: insights from international standards

Rising demand for marine resources has led to a great interest in seabed exploration and mining, while deep-sea environments are faced with cumulative effects of many human activities. Currently, conducting an environmental impact assessment for deep-sea exploration and mining is challenging due to the dynamic nature and a lack of high-quality data. The International Seabed Authority (ISA), which charges with regulating human activities on the seabed beyond the continental shelf, requires contractors to establish both geological and environmental baselines. Also, the ISA provides a general environmental guideline for exploring various seabed resources. However, standardization of its implementation would need to be addressed with specified technical international standards. The marine technology subcommittee of International Standardization Organization (ISO) contributes to the study of standards on deep-sea geological, geophysical and biological surveys, also on marine environmental protection. In this review, we explore two broad aspects of ISO standards: (1) the development of marine geological and geophysical exploration standard, which may help to establish geological map in the seabed area. (2) the current state of development of a series of Marine Environmental Impact Assessment (MEIA) standards, which could standardize the environmental surveys and monitoring activities in the seabed area. We also consider the standardization gap between MEIA and seabed mining, and propose future focus on coordination relationship between marine exploration and environmental protection.

Marine spatial planning identifies solutions for offshore wind farms at fishery and environment in Taiwan territorial waters

Some fishery and environmental organizations criticize offshore wind farms affecting fishery livelihood and marine ecological biological environment. The problems offshore wind farm directly affect the fishing ground due to ocean currents, marine ecology, and the marine environment being changed. In addition, fishing operations may carelessly damage undersea offshore wind farm cables disrupting energy operations, many fishing activities are restricted within the offshore wind farm areas and marine ecological biological environment has been damaged by offshore wind farm. However, marine spatial planning could coordinate offshore wind farm stakeholders and conducts marine environmental impact assessments to identify suitable offshore wind farms. The purpose finds solutions for offshore wind farm in the fishery and marine ecological biological environment. The research questions are how to reduce offshore wind farm impact on fishery livelihood and marine ecological biological environment through marine spatial planning and marine environmental impact assessment in the Taiwan territorial waters. In online questionnaires of 404 respondents, 64.36% supported marine spatial planning site selection and marine environmental impact assessment could reduce offshore wind farm impact; 66.83% agreed offshore wind farm coexistence with multiple uses, increasing fishery and biodiversity; 58.17% agreed on public financial participation in offshore wind farm to increase social acceptance. The findings are consistent with previous research. However, interviewees challenged that multiple uses coexistence might affect some populations in the ecosystem and further investigations are required. Another, 50.50% agreed on updated regulations of marine spatial planning, marine environmental impact assessment, insurance, specific fund, feedback, and compensation of offshore wind farm that could improve fishery livelihood and marine ecological biological environment. Finally, based on the study results, the paper suggests that energy policy could open public financial participation in offshore wind farm increasing social acceptance, skill training influenced groups for employment, enhancing fishery livelihood, and protecting marine ecological biological environment.

Feasibility study of storing CO2 in the ocean by marine environmental impact assessment

Since the industrial revolution, which was accompanied with the use of fossil fuels as an energy source, the content of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere has increased. To mitigate global warming, industries that utilize fossil fuels have continuously explored new approaches to reduce CO2 emissions and convert it to alternative fuels. The ocean is a vast source of absorbed CO2 on Earth, and various studies have been conducted on the use of the ocean to reduce global CO2. This study focused on reducing CO2 in the atmosphere by storing it as bicarbonate, a form of CO2 that exists in the ocean. The optimum condition for the conversion of CO2 into bicarbonate was investigated by considering the dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC; HCO3−, CO32−, H2CO3) concentration and pH. To confirm the biological impact of this conversion, biological impact experiments were conducted under various DIC concentrations using Skeletonema japonicum, a phytoplankton present in most areas of the sea. Based on the DIC concentration (2.09 mM) of the seawater, the DIC concentrations used in the Lab-scale experiment ranged from 2.5 mM to 18.75 mM, and the concentration with the highest conversion rate (< 6.38 mM) was applied in the pilot plant.Marine environmental impact modeling was performed to observe the effect of discharge to the ocean and its movement. The results revealed a slight growth inhibition of phytoplankton at DIC concentrations higher than the base concentration. Nevertheless, the change in the DIC concentration exerted no effect on the phytoplankton growth except at extremely high concentrations. Moreover, the high DIC concentration can be diluted by the ocean current flow rate, thus counterbalancing the growth inhibition effect. The results obtained in this study demonstrate the feasibility of CO2 storage in the form of DIC, and will be helpful for further development of CO2 mitigation.

Marine Environmental Impact on CFAR Ship Detection as Measured by Wave Age in SAR Images

Satellite synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images are recognized as one of the most efficient tools for day/night, all weather and large area monitoring of ships at sea. However, false alarms discrimination is still one key problem on SAR ship detection. While many discrimination techniques have been proposed for the treatment of false alarms, not enough emphasis has been targeted to explore how obtained false alarms are related to the changing ocean environmental conditions. To this end, we combined a large set of Sentinel-1 SAR images with ocean surface wind and wave data into one dataset. SAR images were separated into three distinct groups according to wave age (WA) conditions present during image acquisition: young wind sea, old wind sea, and swell. A constant false alarm rate (CFAR) ship detection algorithm was implemented based on the generalized gamma distribution (GΓD). Kolmogorov–Smirnov distance was used to analyze the distribution goodness-of-fit among distinct ocean environments. A backscattering analysis of different sizes of ship targets and sea clutter was further performed using the OpenSARShip and automatic identification system (AIS) datasets to assess its separability. We derived a discrimination threshold adjustment based on WA conditions and showed its efficacy to drastically reduce false alarms. To our present knowledge, the use of WA as part of the CFAR and for the adjustment of the threshold of detection is a novelty which could be tested and evaluated for different SAR sensors.

A new simulation framework to evaluate the suitability of eDNA for marine and aquatic Environmental Impact Assessments

AbstractA model was developed to forecast and compare changes in species presence assessed with either eDNA or traditional observations. We use it to explore how ecosystem conditions could affect the suitability of eDNA for Environmental Impact Assessment. First, a deterministic model simulated the dynamics of the impacted population (called “receptor” in EIA) and their shed DNA fragment concentrations. Second, random distributions of receptor organisms and eDNA fragment quantities at steady state were simulated within the impacted spatial domain (called “project area”). Then, simple random samplings were performed for both the receptor and eDNA. Third, post‐sampling processes (eDNA extraction, amplification, and analysis) were simulated to estimate the taxon detection probability. Fourth, we simulated an impact by modifying the growth, mortality, and mobility (null, passive, and active) parameters of the receptor taxon. eDNA detection probability curves were then estimated for a range of environmental sample volumes by fitting a Weibull cumulative distribution function. A F‐like statistic compared detection curves before and after impact. Statistically significant differences were detected with eDNA in impact scenarios where receptor taxon growth rate decreased and receptor mobility was null or passive. In scenarios where the project area accumulates DNA shed from multiple categories of the same taxon (e.g., from dead organisms if mortality increased or when individuals can cross project area boundaries), it is difficult to assess impact. Our study shows that results obtained from eDNA sampling will not always agree with an impact classically assessed on a receptor population. One reason is that sources of the total eDNA pool are not identified. The modeling highlights the need: to do preliminary testing of sample sizes, to develop new approaches that will identify sources from the pool of extracted DNA, and to improve descriptions of the ecogeochemical processes required to forecast shed DNA reactivity.

The Development of Floating Nuclear Power Platforms: Special Marine Environmental Risks, Existing Regulatory Dilemmas, and Potential Solutions

Floating nuclear power platforms (FNPPs) are a novel form of nuclear energy infrastructure that is designed to generate electricity in coastal regions, particularly in areas with limited land availability or difficulty in building traditional nuclear power plants. However, the development and deployment of FNPPs have raised significant concerns about their potential marine environmental risks and the adequacy of the existing international regulatory framework for regulating these risks. This research aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the regulation of FNPPs from an international law perspective, using a policy analysis approach to examine relevant legal instruments and their ability to regulate the environmental risks posed by FNPPs. This study identifies regulatory shortcomings and gaps in the current international legal framework, including pollution regulation dilemmas caused by FNPP positioning, potential conflicts between pollution regulation and freedom of navigation, deficiencies in environmental regulations, problems in the marine environmental impact assessment of FNPPs, and insufficient liability and compensation regime. This research also explores the potential solutions for improving the international regulatory framework, enhancing its ability to effectively address the marine environmental challenges posed by the development and deployment of FNPPs.

해양산업시설 배출 위험·유해물질 해양환경 영향평가; 안정동위원소 기반 생물 축적성 평가

위험·유해물질(HNS, Harzardous and Noxious Substances)의 배출허용 기준치 설정과 관련하여, 해양산업시설 주변 방출되는 HNS의 현장기반 생물축적 정보는 수생태계 독성평가 데이터베이스(DB)를 구축하는데 중요하다. 본 연구에서는 안정동위원소 기법을 이용하여 해양생태계 내 먹이단계 구조를 우선적으로 결정하여, 생물영양단계 축적평가와 관련된 활용 가능성을 파악하고자 하였다. 전국 해양산업시설 주변(평택, 보령, 영광, 여수, 울산)에서 측정된 입자성 유기물질(POM) 내 질소 안정동위원소값(δSUP15/SUPN)은 지역 간 유의한 차이(울산-평택; 10.9‰, p0.01)를 보였으며, 이는 각 지역 해양생태계 내 유입되는 유기물 공급 특성 차이가 반영된 것으로 판단된다. 이러한 배경 δSUP15/SUPN값의 변동성은 상위영양생물의 총 조직(bulk tissue)을 활용한 먹이단계(TP) 산출시 동일 해양생물 종임에도 서식지별 TP가 달리 산출될 수 있음을 의미한다. 이를 보완하기 위해 테스트베드(울산 온산만) 내 채집된 시료(POM, 동물플랑크톤, 어류) 내 특정 아미노산(페닐알라닌과 글루타민산)의 δSUP15/SUPN값을 추가 분석하였다. 이를 통해 동물플랑크톤-어류 내 전형적인 영양단계 분별계수(TDF; ~8‰)을 반영한 먹이사슬 구조 특징을 확인하였다. 하지만, 글로벌 TP 데이터베이스와의 비교시, 테스트베드 내 ΔTP 변동성(TPSUBbulk-fishbase/SUB, TPSUBAA—fishbase/SUB)은 통계적 유의한 차이(p0.01)는 보이지 않았다. 따라서 테스트베드 내두 방법을 사용한 TP 평가는 현장기반 HNS 생물축적성 규명을 위해 모두 적용 가능할 것으로 예상된다. 추후, 전국단위 수준에서 보다 신뢰성 있는 HNS 생물축적 자료를 도출하기 위해 해양산업시설 주변 다양한 해양생물 내 TP 자료 확보가 필요할 것으로 판단된다.

Evaluating eDNA for Use within Marine Environmental Impact Assessments

In this review, the use of environmental DNA (eDNA) within Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is evaluated. EIA documents provide information required by regulators to evaluate the potential impact of a development project. Currently eDNA is being incorporated into biodiversity assessments as a complementary method for detecting rare, endangered or invasive species. However, questions have been raised regarding the maturity of the field and the suitability of eDNA information as evidence for EIA. Several key issues are identified for eDNA information within a generic EIA framework for marine environments. First, it is challenging to define the sampling unit and optimal sampling strategy for eDNA with respect to the project area and potential impact receptor. Second, eDNA assay validation protocols are preliminary at this time. Third, there are statistical issues around the probability of obtaining both false positives (identification of taxa that are not present) and false negatives (non-detection of taxa that are present) in results. At a minimum, an EIA must quantify the uncertainty in presence/absence estimates by combining series of Bernoulli trials with ad hoc occupancy models. Finally, the fate and transport of DNA fragments is largely unknown in environmental systems. Shedding dynamics, biogeochemical and physical processes that influence DNA fragments must be better understood to be able to link an eDNA signal with the receptor’s state. The biggest challenge is that eDNA is a proxy for the receptor and not a direct measure of presence. Nonetheless, as more actors enter the field, technological solutions are likely to emerge for these issues. Environmental DNA already shows great promise for baseline descriptions of the presence of species surrounding a project and can aid in the identification of potential receptors for EIA monitoring using other methods.

Modernization, Political Economy, and Limits to Blue Growth: A Cross‐National, Panel Regression Study (1975–2016)*

AbstractSeafood production and trade have expanded dramatically over the last 40 years and comprise one of the fastest growing, and most environmentally impactful, sub‐sectors of the global food system. While richer nations have increased their seafood consumption and displaced their environmental load, the marine environmental impact of fishery production has largely shifted to the waters of less‐affluent nations. To sustain fishing economies and seafood security, in an era of increasing marine ecological precarity constitutes a major challenge for development and human well‐being in the 21st century. Blue growth perspectives emphasize the transformative power of growth‐oriented development. Such perspectives conflict with critical political economic theories of environment and food systems; notably, the treadmill of production and world food system scholarship. Using annual data from the Global Footprint Network, World Bank, UN FAO, and International Monetary Fund, this study applies methods in cross‐national, panel regression analysis in order to ultimately pose some important challenges to modernist blue growth perspectives. The analysis suggests that economic growth and incorporation into the world market economy have led to unsustainable and inequitable outcomes regarding the marine ecological impact of fisheries.

Study on the Key Technology of Deepwater Oil Spill Simulation in the South China Sea

With the development of oil and gas fields in deepwater areas, the risk of deepwater oil spill accidents is increasing. In order to improve the capacity of deepwater oil spill contingency response and management in the South China Sea, an user-friendly and robust 3D (three-dimensional) underwater oil spill simulation system is developed by using the MFC (Microsoft Foundation Classes) interface library and the 3D OSG (Open Scene Graph) rendering engine. Many key technologies including submarine topography drawing, sea surface emulation, three-dimensional current display and oil particle simulation are developed and integrated, and the functions including 3D simulations of marine environment and deepwater oil spill prediction are also implemented in the simulation software system. The 3D oil spill simulation system has been applied in the preparation of oil spill response plans (OSRP) for Liwan 3-1 Block, Liwan 43-11 Block, Chevron’s Block 42-05 and Baiyun Block in the South China Sea. Preliminary application shows that the system can provide convenient and intuitive visual interactive services for the exploitation of oil and gas resources in the deepwater area of the South China Sea. Meanwhile, the system also specifies underwater trajectories of oil spill in deep waters, the concentration distribution of oil spilled in water, and the time and place the spilled oil reaches the surface, thus providing technical support for on-scene oil spill emergency response and marine environmental impact assessment.

Seawater salinity detection based on elliptical micro/nano fiber optic probe sensing

The strong evanescent field of micro/nanofiber enables it to have a stronger interaction with the outside world and to better sense the changes of the external environment, thus realizing many types of chemical, biological, and environmental sensors. We applied micro/nano-optics for ocean exploration and proposed a sensing probe based on an elliptical microfiber. The sensor probe utilizes the stability of polarization intermode interference of an elliptical fiber and the high sensitivity of the microfiber evanescent wave coupling to achieve a high accuracy measurement of seawater salinity. Laboratory salinity sensitivity of 45.6 nm/% was achieved under seawater environment using an elliptical microfiber with a diameter of 2.8 μm and an ellipticity of 0.3, which is two or three orders of magnitude higher than that of conventional salinity measurements. This sensing probe is used to measure the salinity of seawater in the coastal area of Qinhuangdao, samples were taken for 7 days in September, and the average salinity of the seawater was measured to be 2.956%, which is basically consistent with the data in the Marine Environmental Impact Assessment Report Form of Qinhuangdao Government Service Center.

해상풍력에 대한 해양환경영향평가 리뷰: 과학기술 분야 현황, 이슈, 개선방안

전 세계가 탄소중립을 달성하기 위해 친환경 에너지로의 전환에 힘쓰고 있다. 우리나라도 저탄소 경제 전환을 위한 신재생에너지 보급계획을 발표한 바, 대규모 해상풍력단지 조성이 현안으로 등장하면서 체계적인 과학적, 기술적, 정책적 관리 지원·방안이 필요한 시점이다. 본 연구에서는 학술연구논문을 중심으로 지난 40년간 전세계 해양환경영향평가 연구의 흐름을 살펴보았다. 또한 해상풍력 개발사업의 주요 선진국 사례를 중심으로 해상풍력단지 조성에 따른 해역이용 영향평가 사례를 다양한 각도로 분석하여, 해양환경영향평가의 과학적, 기술적, 정책적 시사점을 제시하였다. 종합적으로 향후 해양환경영향평가에 대한 정책방향으로 1) 과학기술 기반의 한국형 해양환경영향평가 제도 실현을 위한 해양환경 진단평가기술 개발, 2) 현장관측 자료에 기반한 해양환경 영향예측기술 고도화, 3) 해양환경을 유지하는 저감방안 수립에 필요한 영향기준 마련, 4) 해양이용영향평가에 활용 가능한 통합 DB 시스템 개발, 5) 해상풍력 특화 해역이용 영향평가 지침 및 가이드라인 마련을 고려해야 할 사항으로 제안한다.

Review of the marine environmental impact assessment reports regarding offshore wind farm

The energy production of offshore wind farms plays an important role in expanding renewable energy. However, the development of offshore wind farms faces many challenges due to its incompatibility with marine environments and its social acceptability among the local community. In this study, we reviewed the marine environmental impact assessment status of offshore wind farm development projects for 2012–2019 in South Korea. A total of nine projects were selected for this study, all of which experienced considerable conflict with local fisheries resources. To appropriately respond to the underlying challenges faced by offshore wind farm development and in order to better support decision-making for future impact assessment, our findings identified: i) a need for adequate preliminary investigation and technical examination of fisheries resources; ii) a need to assess and estimate the impact of underwater noise, vibration, and electromagnetic waves on fisheries resources during wind farm construction and operation; and iii) a need for a bottom-up approach that allows for communication with local stakeholders and policy-makers to guarantee the local acceptability of the development.

Behavioural responses of non-breeding waterbirds to marine traffic in the near-shore environment

ABSTRACT Capsule Recording of behavioural responses to ferry traffic for 11 target species showed that Red-throated Diver Gavia stellata, Slavonian Grebe Podiceps auratus, and Black-throated Diver Gavia arctica were most likely to react to passing vessels. Aim To provide information on how responses to marine traffic vary between waterbird species to inform marine spatial planning and environmental impact assessments in the near-shore environment. Methods We recorded behavioural responses to ferry traffic for 11 target species in near-shore waters: Common Eider Somateria mollissima, Goldeneye Bucephala clangula, Long-tailed Duck Clangula hyemalis, Velvet Scoter Melanitta fusca, Red-breasted Merganser Mergus serrator, Black-throated Diver, Great Northern Diver Gavia immer, Red-throated Diver, European Shag Gulosus aristotelis, Slavonian Grebe and Black Guillemot Cepphus grylle. Responses were analysed using generalized linear models and mixed models. Results Red-throated Diver, Black-throated Diver and Slavonian Grebe were the most likely species to exhibit a response to passing vessels. While Red-throated Divers and Slavonian Grebes were highly likely to flush, Black-throated Divers and Great Northern Divers rarely took flight, instead favouring swim or dive responses. In rougher sea conditions birds were more likely to take flight, and the propensity to respond declined across the wintering period. Conclusions This research provides comparative evidence on the behavioural responses of waterbirds to marine traffic. The results support previous studies which highlighted the high sensitivity of diver species to disturbance and provide new evidence that Slavonian Grebe may also be a high sensitivity species.

Analysis of Marine environmental impact of shipping bulk liquid chemical spills

This paper analyzes the current transportation status and problems of bulk liquid chemicals in China, and analyzes the impact of typical chemical leakage in Yangkou port on Marine environment. The movement trajectory of Insoluble liquid bulk cargo is greatly affected by meteorological conditions and Marine hydrological conditions after they leak into the sea. The location, tidal period and amount of leakage are the main influencing factors for the difference of environmental risks of chemical leakage.

Multi-effect distillation brine treatment by membrane distillation: Effect of antiscalant and antifoaming agents on membrane performance and scaling control

One of the main advantages of the membrane distillation (MD) process is its ability to treat highly saline feed waters such as thermal desalination brines at moderate temperatures. However, scaling remains one of the major obstacles, causing a significant flux decline and membrane pore wetting. Furthermore, antiscalant and antifoaming agents are commonly utilized in conventional thermal desalination to prevent scale formation, and their effects on MD operation are not yet well understood. This study explores a multi-effect distillation (MED) brine as a potential feed source for MD system with respect to process performance and membrane scaling. The influence of chemicals present in MED brine as well as feed temperature on the scaling process is addressed in terms of vapor flux and salt crystals formation. The scale formation was monitored with the non-invasive optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging, and results were validated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Additionally, the elemental composition of the scale was determined and its effect on membrane contact angle was evaluated. We found that depending on its concentration, the antiscalant prolonged the induction time of salt crystallization whereas antifoaming showed the opposite effect. Scaling mostly occurred due to calcium sulfate crystals formation with the large size needle-shaped crystals favored at higher feed temperature. However, no pore wetting was observed including locations where crystal deposition occurred. Results show that thermal desalination brine, which is already preheated and chemically pretreated, could be an appropriate feed source for MD to further increase the overall water recovery and reduce the marine environmental impact by reducing the brine discharge volume and its temperature.

해상풍력사업에 따른 해역이용협의 현황 및 개선방안

해상풍력사업에 따른 해역이용협의 현황 및 개선방안

A review of the occurrence of inter‐colony segregation of seabird foraging areas and the implications for marine environmental impact assessment

Understanding the determinants of species’ distributions is a fundamental aim in ecology and a prerequisite for conservation but is particularly challenging in the marine environment. Advances in bio‐logging technology have resulted in a rapid increase in studies of seabird movement and distribution in recent years. Multi‐colony studies examining the effects of intra‐ and inter‐colony competition on distribution have found that several species exhibit inter‐colony segregation of foraging areas, rather than overlapping distributions. These findings are timely given the increasing rate of human exploitation of marine resources and the need to make robust assessments of likely impacts of proposed marine developments on biodiversity. Here we review the occurrence of foraging area segregation reported by published tracking studies in relation to the density‐dependent hinterland (DDH) model, which predicts that segregation occurs in response to inter‐colony competition, itself a function of colony size, distance from the colony and prey distribution. We found that inter‐colony foraging area segregation occurred in 79% of 39 studies. The frequency of occurrence was similar across the four seabird orders for which data were available, and included species with both smaller (10–100 km) and larger (100–1000 km) foraging ranges. Many predictions of the DDH model were confirmed, with examples of segregation in response to high levels of inter‐colony competition related to colony size and proximity, and enclosed landform restricting the extent of available habitat. Moreover, as predicted by the DDH model, inter‐colony overlap tended to occur where birds aggregated in highly productive areas, often remote from all colonies. The apparent prevalence of inter‐colony foraging segregation has important implications for assessment of impacts of marine development on protected seabird colonies. If a development area is accessible from multiple colonies, it may impact those colonies much more asymmetrically than previously supposed. Current impact assessment approaches that do not consider spatial inter‐colony segregation will therefore be subject to error. We recommend the collection of tracking data from multiple colonies and modelling of inter‐colony interactions to predict colony‐specific distributions.

Natural Ocean Alkalinity for Carbon Storage — Natural Engineering Method Practice

To achieve its latest requirements—the Paris climate goal (1.5°C), the UNFCCC needs to fulfill its basic commitments of promoting to make sustainable use of natural carbon sinks/reservoirs. In particular, it is imperative to make a breakthrough in the utilization of marine carbon sinks/reservoirs (accounting for more than 93% of the earth's natural carbon sinks/reservoirs) as soon as possible. Recent actual surveys and studies of several long-running large and medium-sized Eurasian power plants (a total of about 12 GW (Gigawatt), including a refinery and a marine tanker), have found that these commercial scale seawater scrubbing flue gas desulfurization (FGD) projects have captured substantially more CO2 than SO2 into the marine water column. These technical facts can explain that within the current national and international environmental regulations, there is a safe and marine eco-friendly use of natural ocean alkalinity for carbon storage to reduce the CO2 atmospheric emissions of fossil energy, which has been contributing to the atmosphere for well over 25 years. Based on the above technical facts and basic principles of marine chemistry, a natural engineering mitigation method is proposed. With this method, a portion of CO2 leaves the atmosphere and enters the ocean under controlled flux and rate to react with the natural alkalinity of the ocean (not artificial chemicals alkalinity) for ocean carbon storage. This method thus forms the technical foundation of a reversible, controllable (safe), and sustainable climate mitigation strategy, which can possibly mitigate climate change while avoiding ocean acidification (eliminating the root cause of ocean acidification: greenhouse chemical effects). Therefore, the natural seawater carbon capture and storage (NSW CCS) program was designed by using natural engineering mitigation methods, as the practical technology of using ocean natural alkalinity carbon sink/reservoir in a large scale, the main features of which are only using natural seawater with no additional artificial chemicals in the whole process. The entire cost of this CCS program is less than US$15/ton CO2; when the capture rate is 10%, the plant power consumption rate is about 1.4%; when the capture rate is 90%, plant power consumption rate is higher, about 10%, with a great potential for decline after the establishment of market structure. The funding threshold for pilot demonstration projects is low, and the program can be implemented step by step, which is conducive to the rapid deployment of commercial-scale projects, establishment of market structure and industrial chain, and development of new mitigation technologies and strategies. In view of the global mobility of oceans, it is recommended to carry out international cooperation under the management of UNFCCC Paris climate targets and initiate commercial demonstration research projects (including marine environmental monitoring and impact assessment system construction) with the progressive mode of capture rate, which use ocean natural alkalinity carbon storage. These projects can be prioritized to deploy in large point sources such as coastal power plants, refineries, and the international ocean shipping field.