Marijuana In The United States Research Articles

A Social Identity Perspective on the Legalization of Marijuana in the United States

Using Social Identity Theory, this article explores the process by which a stigmatized consumption practice, namely recreational and medical marijuana use, has been gaining regulatory and normative legitimacy. An online panel (N=432) was surveyed about motivations to support the transition of a market from illegal to legal status from people who do not intend to directly participate in it. Consistent with Social Identity Theory, results indicated that that: (1) marijuana users reported a higher level of support for the legalization of medical and recreational marijuana than non-users; (2) status insecurity enhanced the level of support for legalizing medical marijuana among in-group members and decreased the level of support for out-group members (those not identifying with marijuana users). In addition, results suggested that non-users may engage in legitimation practices to benefit their communities rather than promoting individual level benefits. Overall, the present research provides a link between the micro level motivational processes of group members to support/oppose the transition of an illegal market to one with regulatory legitimacy.

New York Compassionate Care Act

Few people seem to know that medical marijuana is legal in the State of New York. The Compassionate Care Act was passed in June of 2014 and since then there have been 24,555 patients and 1,123 doctors approved as of July 17, 2017. By way of comparison, California has 1,526,250 registered card holders in its program, and its population is almost forty million. There are a number of reasons why this is a relatively low number in a state with a population of 8.652 Million. The confused legal status of medical marijuana in the United States is a big part of this, but the difficult regulatory scheme imposed by the New York Compassionate Care Act is a large part as well.

Marijuana Use and Self-reported Quality of Eyesight.

There is increasing use of marijuana among young adults and more states in the United States are legalizing medical marijuana use. A number of studies have revealed both the beneficial and harmful effects of marijuana to the human system. Despite some beneficial effects, studies have shown marijuana to have a lot of deleterious effects on the visual system, which subsequently reduces the quality of eyesight. The aim of this study was to investigate if heavy marijuana smoking is associated with a poor quality of eyesight compared with light/no use of marijuana. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youths (NLSY79), a nationally representative sample of 12,686 young men and women surveyed in 1979 to 2010 was used for this study. The quality of eyesight of 1304 heavy marijuana users was compared with 1304 respondents with light or no marijuana use. The t test, multivariate and weighted logistic regression were used in the data analysis. There was no statistically significant difference in the self-reported quality of eyesight among heavy marijuana smokers compared with youths who never used marijuana or are light marijuana users. Among heavy marijuana smokers, males and high school graduates have decreased odds of reporting a poor quality of eyesight, whereas blacks have increased odds of reporting a poor quality of eyesight. The self-reported quality of eyesight among marijuana users can aid clinicians and other health practitioners facilitate the development of sex-, racial/ethnic-, and educational level-informed prevention and early intervention programs and also help characterize public opinions regarding cannabis, which are particularly relevant given the ongoing debate concerning the medicalization and legalization of cannabis in the United States.

The Impact of Marijuana Legalization on Adolescent Use, Consequences, and Perceived Risk

ABSTRACTBackground: Currently, only four states have legalized recreational marijuana use for adults over 21 years of age. Therefore, little is known about the influence that legalization will have on adolescent marijuana use. Objectives: This study examines how marijuana legalization has impacted the frequency and consequences of adolescent use in a sample of participants in a school-based, substance use intervention. We hypothesized that adolescents enrolled in the intervention in years after marijuana legalization would present with more problematic use compared to those enrolled prior, and that changes in the perceived risk of marijuana would be a mechanism of problematic use. Methods: Participants were 262 students enrolled in a school-based substance use intervention in 2010 to 2015. The Customary Drinking and Drug Use Record, Alcohol and Drug Use Consequences Questionnaire, and a decisional balance matrix were used to assess marijuana frequency, negative consequences, and perceived risk of use. A mediation model was used to test the degree to which marijuana legalization may lead to increased frequency and consequences of use through perceived risk. Results: Findings indicated a significantly positive correlation between marijuana-related consequences and perceived risk post legalization. Despite relatively equal use between both groups, adolescents in the legalization group experienced higher levels of perceived risk and increased negative consequences. Conclusions/Importance: Due to the rising legalization status of marijuana in the United States, it is imperative that psychoeducation is provided to adults and adolescents about the consequences of underage marijuana use.

Agitation in Alzheimer Disease as a Qualifying Condition for Medical Marijuana in the United States

To determine the extent to which states and localities include dementia as a qualifying condition for medical marijuana and how common this indication is. The authors reviewed authorizing legislation and medical marijuana program websites and annual reports for the states and localities where medical marijuana is legal. Of the 24 states and localities where medical marijuana is legal, dementia is a qualifying condition in 10 (41.7%), primarily for agitation of Alzheimer disease. In the five states where information was available regarding qualifying conditions for certification, dementia was the indication for <0.5% of medical marijuana certifications. Dementia is somewhat commonly listed as a potential qualifying condition for medical marijuana. Currently, few applicants for medical marijuana list dementia as the reason for seeking certification. However, given increasingly open attitudes toward recreational and medical marijuana use, providers should be aware that dementia is a potential indication for licensing, despite lack of evidence for its efficacy.

Marijuana: The Unbiased Truth About the World’s Most Popular Weedby Kevin P. Hill, M.D. Center City, Minn., Hazelden Publishing Group, 2015, 240 pp., $14.95 (paperback).

Marijuana: The Unbiased Truth About the World’s Most Popular Weedby Kevin P. Hill, M.D. Center City, Minn., Hazelden Publishing Group, 2015, 240 pp., $14.95 (paperback).

The role of religiosity as a protective factor against marijuana use among African American, White, Asian, and Hispanic adolescents

Given the moves toward legalization of marijuana in the United States and problems associated with adolescent marijuana use, this study focused on examining the role of religiosity in protecting African American, White, Hispanic, and Asian American adolescents from using marijuana. It also tested the moderation effects of race on religiosity and marijuana use. Results of the main effects revealed that religiosity may serve as a protective factor against marijuana use for African American, White, Hispanic, and Asian American adolescents. Race did not have moderating effects on the relationship between religiosity and marijuana use in the sample. Implications for clinical practice are discussed.

Online survey characterizing vaporizer use among cannabis users

BackgroundAlong with changes in cannabis laws in the United States and other countries, new products for consuming cannabis are emerging, with unclear public health implications. Vaporizing or “vaping” cannabis is gaining popularity, but little is known about its prevalence or consequences. MethodsThis study characterized the prevalence and current patterns of vaping cannabis among a large national sample of cannabis users. An online survey was distributed through Facebook ads targeting individuals with interests related to cannabis use. The sample comprised 2910 cannabis users (age: 18–90, 84% male, 74% Caucasian). ResultsA majority (61%) endorsed lifetime prevalence of ever vaping, 37% reported vaping in the past 30 days, 20% reported vaping more than 100 lifetime days, and 12% endorsed vaping as their preferred method. Compared to those that had never vaped, vaporizer users were younger, more likely to be male, initiated cannabis at an earlier age, and were less likely to be African American. Those that preferred vaping reported it to be healthier, better tasting, produced better effects, and more satisfying. Only 14% reported a reduction in smoking cannabis since initiating vaping, and only 5% mixed cannabis with nicotine in a vaporizer. Many cannabis users report vaping cannabis, but currently only a small subset prefers vaping to smoking and reports frequent vaping. ConclusionIncreases in availability and marketing of vaping devices, and the changing legal status of cannabis in the United States and other countries may influence patterns of use. Frequent monitoring is needed to assess the impact of changing cannabis laws and regulations.

Prevalence of Marijuana Use Disorders in the United States Between 2001-2002 and 2012-2013.

Laws and attitudes toward marijuana in the United States are becoming more permissive but little is known about whether the prevalence rates of marijuana use and marijuana use disorders have changed in the 21st century. To present nationally representative information on the past-year prevalence rates of marijuana use, marijuana use disorder, and marijuana use disorder among marijuana users in the US adult general population and whether this has changed between 2001-2002 and 2012-2013. Face-to-face interviews conducted in surveys of 2 nationally representative samples of US adults: the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (data collected April 2001-April 2002; N = 43,093) and the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions-III (data collected April 2012-June 2013; N = 36,309). Data were analyzed March through May 2015. Past-year marijuana use and DSM-IV marijuana use disorder (abuse or dependence). The past-year prevalence of marijuana use was 4.1% (SE, 0.15) in 2001-2002 and 9.5% (SE, 0.27) in 2012-2013, a significant increase (P < .05). Significant increases were also found across demographic subgroups (sex, age, race/ethnicity, education, marital status, income, urban/rural, and region). The past-year prevalence of DSM-IV marijuana use disorder was 1.5% (0.08) in 2001-2002 and 2.9% (SE, 0.13) in 2012-2013 (P < .05). With few exceptions, increases in the prevalence of marijuana use disorder between 2001-2002 and 2012-2013 were also statistically significant (P < .05) across demographic subgroups. However, the prevalence of marijuana use disorder among marijuana users decreased significantly from 2001-2002 (35.6%; SE, 1.37) to 2012-2013 (30.6%; SE, 1.04). The prevalence of marijuana use more than doubled between 2001-2002 and 2012-2013, and there was a large increase in marijuana use disorders during that time. While not all marijuana users experience problems, nearly 3 of 10 marijuana users manifested a marijuana use disorder in 2012-2013. Because the risk for marijuana use disorder did not increase among users, the increase in prevalence of marijuana use disorder is owing to an increase in prevalence of users in the US adult population. Given changing laws and attitudes toward marijuana, a balanced presentation of the likelihood of adverse consequences of marijuana use to policy makers, professionals, and the public is needed.

Does Cannabis Cause, Exacerbate or Ameliorate Psychiatric Disorders? An Oversimplified Debate Discussed.

There have been extensive policy shifts in the legality of recreational and therapeutic use of cannabis in the United States, as well as a steady increase in the number of people using the drug on a regular basis. Given these rapid societal changes, defining what is known scientifically about the consequences of cannabis use on mental health takes on added public health significance. The purpose of this circumspectives piece is to discuss evidence of cannabis' effects on two psychiatric conditions: post-traumatic stress disorder and psychotic disorders. Dr Haney and Dr Evins will discuss two viewpoints regarding the benefit and harm of cannabis use for these conditions, while outlining what remains unproven and requires further testing to move the field forward.

Assessing the Dangers of "Dabbing": Mere Marijuana or Harmful New Trend?

* Abbreviations: BHO — : butane hash oil THC — : tetrahydrocannabinol The practice now known as “dabbing” appears to be quickly proliferating as a fashionable way to use marijuana in the United States.1 Dabbing is the inhalation of a concentrated tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) product created through butane extraction. The use of butane hash oil (BHO) products and the modification of cannabis more generally are not new phenomena, but dabbing has recently moved from relative obscurity to the headlines, leaving cannabis aficionados, adolescents, and parents curious about its effects. Physicians and other health care professionals need to be prepared for discussions about the effects of dabbing to minimize potential harms, particularly because recent marijuana policy changes likely has facilitated youth access to “dabs.” BHO is made from cannabis and in many instances may be used to salvage less potent portions of the plant.2 Because BHO production is uncomplicated, requires few resources, and is the subject of countless instructional videos on social media Web sites, recreational users have created BHO at home in a process colloquially called “blasting.” Blasting involves passing butane through a steel or glass tube packed with dried cannabis trimmings. THC and other hydrophobic compounds in the vegetation’s trichomes dissolve within the butane; the butane–THC solution leaves the tube through a filter and is collected in a dish or tray. Because butane is very volatile, it evaporates (or is purged within a vacuum oven), leaving crystalized resins that can have a THC concentration approaching 80%. This product can take many forms depending on heat, pressure, humidity, and other factors. The form most challenging to produce … Address correspondence to John M. Stogner, PhD, Department of Criminal Justice and Criminology, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 9201 University City Blvd, Charlotte, NC 28223. E-mail: johnstogner{at}uncc.edu

UHPLC-UV/MS fingerprint method for quantitative determination of THC, CBD, CBG, and other eight cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa L. varieties

The cannabis plant is one of the oldest plants known in medicine, with many reported medicinal uses for > 5,000 years. However, the chemistry of the plant was not fully investigated till the chemical structure of the active component was determined in 1964. Since then, over 10,000 scientific citations could be found on cannabis and the cannabinoids. The legal status of cannabis in the United States has been in a state of controversy. Although the drug in classified as a Schedule I Controlled Substance, therefore, illegal to possess without appropriate Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) Registration, 23 states and the District of Columbia have passed laws allowing the medical use of cannabis. Furthermore, Colorado and Washington State have passed legislations allowing recreational use of the drug as well. Over the past few years there has been a tremendous public interest in cannabis and cannabis oil, with many growers sprouting in all states with legal medical use. The medical community and the end users have also shown much interest in knowing the composition of the materials on the market. Several laboratories have reported on methods to determine the chemical composition of the cannabis products, particularly the Δ9-THC and the CBD levels, along with a few other cannabinoids.

PC-FACS

PC-FACS

Cannabis policy reforms in the Americas: A comparative analysis of Colorado, Washington, and Uruguay

Legal reforms in the Americas are influencing the public debate on cannabis policy. Uruguay and the two US states of Colorado and Washington have taken steps to regulate and legitimize the production, distribution, and use of cannabis and its derivatives. Earlier experiences with medical cannabis in the United States and limited access and production models in Europe have been insightful. However, these reforms are going further still, venturing into a new area of cannabis policy. A lack of empirical evidence regarding the effects of such reforms poses a challenge for policymakers. These examples will inform the design and implementation of any future cannabis policies. Therefore, a clear understanding of the details of each jurisdiction is necessary in developing future legal changes. Literature comparing the models of Uruguay, Colorado, and Washington is thin. This paper is based on an exhaustive examination of the laws, regulations, and discussions with regulators and functionaries of each jurisdiction. The research and analysis herein will provide policymakers with a greater understanding of the laws and regulations relevant to legal cannabis in these three jurisdictions, as well as draw to their attention some potential impacts and challenges of cannabis reform that require additional consideration to ensure public safety and health.

Cannabis, pesticides and conflicting laws: The dilemma for legalized States and implications for public health

State laws on the legalization of medical and recreational cannabis are rapidly evolving. Similar to other crops, cannabis is susceptible to multiple pests during cultivation. Growers have an economic incentive to produce large yields and high quality plants, and may resort to pesticides to achieve these outcomes. Currently, there are no pesticides registered for cannabis in the United States, given its illegal status by the federal government. This discrepancy creates a regulatory vacuum and dilemma for States with legal medical and recreational cannabis that seek to balance lawful compliance with pesticides and worker or public health. Pesticide use presents occupational safety issues that can be mitigated through established worker protection measures. The absence of approved products for cannabis may result in consumer exposures to otherwise more hazardous pesticides or higher residue levels. While many legal and scientific hurdles exist to register conventional pesticides for use on cannabis, legalized States have explored other opportunities to leverage the present regulatory infrastructure. Stakeholder engagement and outreach to the cannabis industry from credible sources could mitigate pesticide misuse and harm.

The difficulty of restricting promotion of legalized marijuana in the United States

The difficulty of restricting promotion of legalized marijuana in the United States

Association of Unintentional Pediatric Exposures With Decriminalization of Marijuana in the United States

We compare state trends in unintentional pediatric marijuana exposures, as measured by call volume to US poison centers, by state marijuana legislation status. A retrospective review of the American Association of Poison Control Centers National Poison Data System was performed from January 1, 2005, to December 31, 2011. States were classified as nonlegal if they have not passed legislation, transitional if they enacted legislation between 2005 and 2011, and decriminalized if laws passed before 2005. Our hypotheses were that decriminalized and transitional states would experience a significant increase in call volume, with more symptomatic exposures and more health care admissions than nonlegal states. There were 985 unintentional marijuana exposures reported from 2005 through 2011 in children aged 9 years and younger: 496 in nonlegal states, 93 in transitional states, and 396 in decriminalized states. There was a slight male predominance, and the median age ranged from 1.5 to 2.0 years. Clinical effects varied, with neurologic effects the most frequent. More exposures in decriminalized states required health care evaluation and had moderate to major clinical effects and critical care admissions compared with exposures from nonlegal states. The call rate in nonlegal states to poison centers did not change from 2005 to 2011. The call rate in decriminalized states increased by 30.3% calls per year, and transitional states had a trend toward an increase of 11.5% per year. Although the number of pediatric exposures to marijuana reported to the National Poison Data System was low, the rate of exposure increased from 2005 to 2011 in states that had passed marijuana legislation.

Review of Marijuana Use in the Adolescent Population and Implications of its Legalization in the United States

With the changing attitudes towards the legality of marijuana in the United States (US), there has been an abundance of rhetoric surrounding the potential societal effects of decriminalized cannabis use. These statements vary in degree from visions of the downfall of our moral and productive civilization, to the elimination of drug crime and a windfall of economic growth. From either side of this divisive issue, there has been a strongly expressed concern of the unknown consequences of a more readily available cannabis supply to the adolescent population, followed by what measures should be taken to curtail this risk. Given this country's unique relationship with mindaltering substances, a great deal of comparisons have been made with alcohol, as it is also a substance of recreation as well as abuse that is currently legal but has also gone through a period of prohibition. This paper looks to examine the validity of this comparison, as well as reviews the current research on the effects of early cannabis use on the adolescent brain.

Marijuana in the United States and the international drug control regime: Why what is promoted abroad is not applied at home

Marijuana in the United States and the international drug control regime: Why what is promoted abroad is not applied at home

Anticipated Medical Effects on Children From Legalization of Marijuana in Colorado and Washington State

On November 4, 2012, Amendment 64 passed in Colorado and Initiative 502 passed in Washington State to legalize the possession of small amounts ofmarijuana andmarijuana-related productsbyadults.Possessionbyanyoneyounger than21years and the growing of marijuana without authorization remain illegal in both states. InColorado, adults are permitted topossess up to 1 oz of marijuana or 6 marijuana plants. In Washington, adults are permitted to possess up to 1 oz of marijuana, 16 oz ofmarijuana-infused product in solid form, 72 oz ofmarijuana-infusedproduct in liquid form, or any combination of all 3. The possession of marijuana remains illegal under federal law andmarijuana remains a Schedule I agent under the Drug Enforcement Administration. Themedicaluseofmarijuanaandmarijuana-infusedproducts is legal in 18 states and theDistrict ofColumbia. Sevenadditional states are considering legalization of medical marijuana.Themedicaluseofmarijuanahasbeen legal inColorado since 2009. In this issue, Wang et al1 describe an increase in cases of accidental ingestion of marijuana by children after decriminalization of medical marijuana in Colorado. Marijuana ingested by themajority of the children described in the article was in the form of a food product. The medical marijuana industry provides attractive and palatable marijuana-infused solidand liquidproducts, including cookies, candies, brownies, andbeverages. The legalizationof recreationalmarijuana, especially the solid and liquid-infused formspermitted inWashington, will provide children greater access to cookies, candies, brownies, and beverages that contain marijuana. Ingestion of marijuana results in the absorption of delta-9-tetrahydrocannibinol (THC) and stimulation of cannabinoid receptors in the central nervous system. This produces stimulation with hallucinations and illusions, followed by sedation.2 Toxic reactions are usually mild after acute accidental ingestion but can cause significant sedation in children.3 Respiratory insufficiency and the need for ventilatory support are described in the article. In older children, the stimulatory phase and hallucinations can produce anxiety and panic episodes when not anticipated in an accidental ingestion. The potency of marijuana in the United States has progressively increased over the past 40 years, with THC levels climbing from around 2% to nearly 8%.4 The risk of significant toxic reactions from exposures is more likely today than in the past. Emergencymedicine, pediatric emergencymedicine, and primary carepediatric providerswill be first to seepatients accidentally exposed to marijuana. They may need additional training to recognize andmanage significant marijuana toxic reactions. Signs and symptoms can include anxiety, hallucinations, panic episodes, dyspnea, chest pain, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, somnolence, central nervous system depression, respiratory depression, and coma.5 Similar signs and symptomsoccur in a large variety of diseases andpoisonings. The providers and staff should investigate the availability of marijuana in the child’s environment and use rapid tests to identify the metabolites of marijuana in the urine.6 No antidote exists for marijuana toxic reactions and supportive care should be provided, including control of anxiety, control of vomiting, airway control, and ventilation as needed. The regional Poison Center should be contacted to report the episode andobtain additional advice on evaluation andmanagement. Increased accidental exposure after increased availability of an agent is a consistent lesson in toxicology. Our current increase in laundry-pod ingestion in children is the resultof increasedavailabilitycoupledwithattractivepackaging.7 The ready availability of pain medications led to opioids surpassingmotor vehicle crashes as the leading causeof accidental death in the United States. This profound poisoning problem went unrecognized for nearly a decade and has only recently come to the attention of health care providers and policymakers.8 A recent analysis of PoisonCenter data shows a parallel increase in severe poisonings, emergency department visits, andhospitalizations in children.9 A similar rise in marijuanaexposureand toxic reactions is anticipated fromthe increased availability of marijuana in the child’s environment. Timely analysis of Poison Center data and emergency department recordswill provideanopportunity toquickly recognize and respond. Intervention strategies inWashingtonStatehavebegun to reduce thedeath rate fromopioid exposure. Theseweremodeled on successful interventions in poison prevention and includepublic educationon the risksofopioiduse,providereducation on safe prescribing practices, prescription monitoring programs, and home naloxone hydrochloride programs.10,11 Editorial page 600