Marginal Fitness Research Articles

Female–female competition leads to female‐biased sex allocation and dimorphism in brood sex composition in a gall‐forming aphid

Abstract Sex allocation in animals is predicted to be skewed from a 1:1 ratio if sons and daughters yield different marginal fitness returns per unit maternal investment. We tested this prediction using the gall‐forming aphid Tetraneura sorini, in which lethal fighting is common among females, whereas male–male competition is moderate. Mothers (autumnal winged females) parthenogenetically produce females and males in their abdomen and can control their sizes and numbers. The females and males do not feed after birth. After mating, females produce single eggs, from which only females (foundresses) hatch and fight intensely with one another during the galling process. Larger‐sized foundresses have overwhelming advantages in fighting. If mothers invest more in individual females, they can produce larger foundresses (granddaughters), which yields greater fitness returns. This situation is contrary to the original Trivers–Willard hypothesis. Thus, we predicted that more fecund mothers in this species would invest more in females. The cost of producing one female was found to be 3.0–3.2 times the cost of producing one male. Population sex ratios were male‐biased (54.8%–58.2% male), but population sex allocation was highly female biased (68%–72% females). Larger mothers biased their progeny sex ratios more towards females and produced larger females, thus supporting our prediction. Mothers produced two types of brood: all‐female broods and mixed‐sex broods. Mothers with an all‐female brood produced larger females than those with a mixed‐sex brood, thereby offering their granddaughters (foundresses) an advantage in fighting. Local mate competition has been postulated to explain female‐biased population sex allocation in gall‐forming aphids. However, we concluded that competition among foundresses has led to the evolution of female‐biased sex allocation at the population level and dimorphism in brood sex composition.

Greater wealth inequality, less polygyny: rethinking the polygyny threshold model.

Monogamy appears to have become the predominant human mating system with the emergence of highly unequal agricultural populations that replaced relatively egalitarian horticultural populations, challenging the conventional idea—based on the polygyny threshold model—that polygyny should be positively associated with wealth inequality. To address this polygyny paradox, we generalize the standard polygyny threshold model to a mutual mate choice model predicting the fraction of women married polygynously. We then demonstrate two conditions that are jointly sufficient to make monogamy the predominant marriage form, even in highly unequal societies. We assess if these conditions are satisfied using individual-level data from 29 human populations. Our analysis shows that with the shift to stratified agricultural economies: (i) the population frequency of relatively poor individuals increased, increasing wealth inequality, but decreasing the frequency of individuals with sufficient wealth to secure polygynous marriage, and (ii) diminishing marginal fitness returns to additional wives prevent extremely wealthy men from obtaining as many wives as their relative wealth would otherwise predict. These conditions jointly lead to a high population-level frequency of monogamy.

Marginal and Internal Fitness of Full Contour CAD/CAM Fabricated Zirconia Crowns using Different Digital Intra-oral Scanners (An In vitro Study)

Marginal and Internal Fitness of Full Contour CAD/CAM Fabricated Zirconia Crowns using Different Digital Intra-oral Scanners (An In vitro Study)

Comparative Evaluation of the Marginal and Internal Fitness of Monolithic CAD/CAM Zirconia Crowns Fabricated from Different Conventional Impression Techniques and Digital Impression Using Silicone Replica Technique (An in vitro study)

Comparative Evaluation of the Marginal and Internal Fitness of Monolithic CAD/CAM Zirconia Crowns Fabricated from Different Conventional Impression Techniques and Digital Impression Using Silicone Replica Technique (An in vitro study)

Comparison of marginal adaptation, internal fitness and microleakage of Zolid, Zirconia and Empress 2 all-ceramic crown materials (An in vitro study)

The purposes of this in vitro study were to compare the marginal adaptation,internal fitness and the microleakage of three CAD-CAM all ceramic crownsmaterials: Zolid, Zircon, and Empress 2. This study also evaluated the correlation ofmicroleakage of these ceramic crowns materials to the marginal fitness.Forty-five maxillary first premolar teeth were prepared with 2-mm occlusalreduction and 1-mm all around shoulder finish line, teeth were randomly divided intothree main groups according to the type of ceramic material that was used (n=15).Group 1: received a CAD-CAM Ceramill Zolid® unilayered transparent zircon Group2: received a CAD-CAM Ceramill ZI units (Zirconium oxide) Group 3: received aCAD-CAM Ceramill wax units that would subsequently invested and heat pressed tofabricate a hot-press ceramic crowns.The results showed statistical significant difference in marginal fitness, internalfitness and microleakage between Zolid group and other groups (P>0.0001). Therewas highly significant correlation of the marginal and internal fitness, whilst there wasno significant correlation marginal fitness and microleakage.,

Condition dependence in the marine exit timing of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) returning to Copper Creek, Haida Gwaii

We examined a small population of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) that enters their natal stream, to hold in their natal lake, months (>130 days) prior to spawning. This effectively decouples the influence of spawn timing requirements and behaviours from river entry (alternately referred to as “marine exit”) timing and is therefore a good model to study the migration strategies specifically associated with marine exit. We found individuals with early marine exit had higher growth rates in the months prior to river entry, had greater lipid density, were more likely male, more likely of the 2.2 versus 1.2 age class, had smaller gonads, and (if female) had more and smaller eggs. Body size at river entry did not vary seasonally. These patterns are explained using a life history model proposing that individual fish exit the sea when the marginal fitness benefits of further growth are outweighed by the marginal fitness cost of further marine residence. This point is reached at different times depending on body size, sex, lipid reserves, and the growth rate.

Comparison on marginal fitness and mechanical properties of copings with zirconia block and CAM type

Comparison on marginal fitness and mechanical properties of copings with zirconia block and CAM type

석고 모형재와 고무인상재의 젖음성이 지르코니아 코핑의 변연적합도에 미치는 영향

Purpose: This study examined the effect of wettability of gypsum materials and rubber impression material on the marginal fitness of zirconia copings. Methods: Three commercially available gypsum materials(Fugirock EP, Snow Rock, Tuff Rock) and three zirconia blocks(iJAM Emerald, LUXEN Smile block, ICE Zirkon transluzent) were studied. The zirconia copings were fabricated by using dental CAD/CAM system. Contact angles on the impression materials were measured with contact angle measuring device. Silicone replica method was used to measure the marginal fitness and cutting was performed on the bucco-lingual and mesio-distal sides. It were observed with a stereomicroscope at &#x00B0;&#x00F8;40 magnification. The data were statistically analyzed with One-way ANOVA. Results: Mean values of contact angles were <TEX>$58.3{\pm}0.7^{\circ}$</TEX> for Tuff Rock, <TEX>$77.5{\pm}0.5^{\circ}$</TEX> for Fugirock EP and <TEX>$87.8{\pm}0.5^{\circ}$</TEX> for Snow Rock and the difference between them was statistically significant(p<0.05). The smallest values of marginal fitness for the JF groups were <TEX>$30.7{\pm}3.0{\mu}m$</TEX> for bucco-lingual direction, <TEX>$29.3{\pm}3.0{\mu}m$</TEX> for mesio-distal direction. One-way ANOVA showed statistically significant difference between groups for marginal fitness(p<0.05). Conclusion: Tuff rock gypsum material had superior wettability to others. The mean marginal fitness of the Tuff rock gypsum material group were significantly better than other groups. Thus they can be also expected to show clinically satisfactory marginal fitness.

Comparison of the Marginal Fitness of the Ceramic Crowns Fabricated with Different CAD/CAM Systems : An in Vitro Study

Background: The marginal fit is the most characteristic that closely related to the longevity or success of a restoration, which is absolutely affected by the fabrication technique. The objective of present in vitro study was to evaluate the effect of four different CAD/CAM systems on the marginal fit of lithiµm disilicate all ceramic crowns. Materials and Methods: Adentoform tooth of a right mandibular first molar was prepared to receive all ceramic crown restoration with deep chamfer finishing line (1mm) and axial reduction convergence angle of 6 degree, dentoform model duplicated to have Nickel-Chromiµm master die. Thirty two stone dies produce from master die and distributed randomly in to four groups (8 dies for each group) according to the type of CAD/CAM system that used: Group A: fabricated with CERAMILL motion2 (Amann Girrbach); Group B:fabricated with CEREC in lab MCXL (Sirona);Group C: fabricated with CORiTEC 250i (imes-icore); Group D: fabricated with ZIRKONZAHN M5 (Zirkonzahn). Marginal discrepancy was measured at four points at each tooth surface. Sixteen points per tooth were measured using digital stereomicroscope at (140X) magnification. Results: ANOVA and LSD post Hoc tests were used to identify and localize the source of difference among the groups. It was found that there is a highly significant difference in the marginal gap mean values between group C and group D, and highly significant differences between group A and group D. Conclusions: From the above result we can conclude that better marginal fit values were may be exhibited by CORiTEC 250i CAD/CAM system.

4 종류의 다른 버로 형성된 지대치에서 제작한 지르코니아 코어의 변연 및 내면 적합도 평가

Marginal shape of abutment is one of the factors to effect on the fitness of zirconia crown. The aim of this study was to help clinicians set up specific guidelines on preparation for CAD/CAM zirconia crown by evaluation of marginal and internal fitness of CAD/CAM zirconia core using abutment model reflecting tip design of diamond burs to be used in a dental clinic. 4 groups consisting of 10 specimens of abutment made of photo-polymerized resin(RC 31;EnvisionTEC;Germany) were fabricated with 3D printer(Ultra 2, EnvisionTEC, Germany). The margin shape of each group’s abutment is designed to reflect 4 types of tip design of diamond burs(torpedo bur, deep chamfer bur, sloped shoulder bur, shoulder bur) to be used in a dental clinic. And then, zirconia cores for abutments of 4 groups were fabricated by same technician with same CAD/CAM system. 5 zirconia cores of each group were adapted on the abutment without cement, and 5 zirconia cores were cemented on abutment with ZPC. After embedding the specimens in resin, we observed marginal and internal fitness on the cross-section of the resin block by recording 200~500 fold magnification. When experiments without cement, the measured value of the gap in the margin, internal line angle and occlusal surface of torpedo group and deep chamfer group were smaller than sloped shoulder nd shoulder group. All result of ZPC cemented groups showed larger values than non-cemented group, especially shoulder group. Torpedo and deep chamfer bur are clinically acceptable for CAD/CAM zirconia crown. However, sloped shoulder and shoulder bur showed relatively large gap in the finish line and occlusal surface, having large variations within the group.

Nuclear-mitochondrial epistasis: a gene's eye view of genomic conflict.

We use population genetic models to investigate the cooperative and conflicting synergistic fitness effects between genes from the nucleus and the mitochondrion. By varying fitness parameters, we examine the scope for conflict relative to cooperation among genomes and the utility of the “gene's eye view” analytical approach, which is based on the marginal average fitness of specific alleles. Because sexual conflict can maintain polymorphism of mitochondrial haplotypes, we can explore two types of evolutionary conflict (genomic and sexual) with one epistatic model. We find that the nuclear genetic architecture (autosomal, X‐linked, or Z‐linked) and the mating system change the regions of parameter space corresponding to the evolution by sexual and genomic conflict. For all models, regardless of conflict or cooperation, we find that population mean fitness increases monotonically as evolution proceeds. Moreover, we find that the process of gene frequency change with positive, synergistic fitnesses is self‐accelerating, as the success of an allele in one genome or in one sex increases the frequency of the interacting allele upon which its success depends. This results in runaway evolutionary dynamics caused by the positive intergenomic associations generated by selection. An inbreeding mating system tends to further accelerate these runaway dynamics because it maintains favorable host–symbiont or male–female gene combinations. In contrast, where conflict predominates, the success of an allele in one genome or in one sex diminishes the frequency of the corresponding allele in the other, resulting in considerably slower evolutionary dynamics. The rate of change of mean fitness is also much faster with positive, synergistic fitnesses and much slower where conflict is predominant. Consequently, selection rapidly fixes cooperative gene combinations, while leaving behind a slowing evolving residue of conflicting gene combinations at mutation–selection balance. We discuss how an emphasis on marginal fitness averages may obscure the interdependence of allelic fitness across genomes, making the evolutionary trajectories appear independent of one another when they are not.

Addiction of Hypertransformable Pneumococcal Isolates to Natural Transformation for In Vivo Fitness and Virulence.

Natural genetic transformation of Streptococcus pneumoniae, an important human pathogen, mediates horizontal gene transfer for the development of drug resistance, modulation of carriage and virulence traits, and evasion of host immunity. Transformation frequency differs greatly among pneumococcal clinical isolates, but the molecular basis and biological importance of this interstrain variability remain unclear. In this study, we characterized the transformation frequency and other associated phenotypes of 208 S. pneumoniae clinical isolates representing at least 30 serotypes. While the vast majority of these isolates (94.7%) were transformable, the transformation frequency differed by up to 5 orders of magnitude between the least and most transformable isolates. The strain-to-strain differences in transformation frequency were observed among many isolates producing the same capsule types, indicating no general association between transformation frequency and serotype. However, a statistically significant association was observed between the levels of transformation and colonization fitness/virulence in the hypertransformable isolates. Although nontransformable mutants of all the selected hypertransformable isolates were significantly attenuated in colonization fitness and virulence in mouse infection models, such mutants of the strains with relatively low transformability had no or marginal fitness phenotypes under the same experimental settings. This finding strongly suggests that the pneumococci with high transformation capability are "addicted" to a "hypertransformable" state for optimal fitness in the human host. This work has thus provided an intriguing hint for further investigation into how the competence system impacts the fitness, virulence, and other transformation-associated traits of this important human pathogen.

구강인기방법과 블록 종류에 따른 지르코니아 코핑의 변연적합도 비교

구강인기방법과 지르코니아 블록 종류에 따른 지르코니아 코핑의 변연적합도 변화를 관찰하기 위해 2종의 고무인상재와 1종의 구강스캐너를 사용한 구강인기방법과 3종의 지르코니아 블록을 사용하여 지르코니아 코핑을 10개씩 제작하여 표면 거칠기와 변연적합도를 측정하였다. 표면 거칠기는 LUXEN Smile(<TEX>$2.3{\pm}0.9{\mu}m$</TEX>) 블록이 가장 우수하였다. 그리고 협측 변연간격은 HL시편(<TEX>$26.5{\pm}2.1{\mu}m$</TEX>), 설측 변연간격은 HL시편(<TEX>$27.2{\pm}2.1{\mu}m$</TEX>), 근심 변연간격은 HJ시편(<TEX>$29.6{\pm}4.0{\mu}m$</TEX>), 원심 변연간격은 HJ시편(<TEX>$29.0{\pm}3.0{</TEX><TEX>\mu}m$</TEX>)이 가장 낮게 나타났으며, 통계학적으로 유의차가 있었다(p<0.05). 이 결과, 구강인기방법과 지르코니아 블록 종류가 변연적합도에 영향을 준 것으로 나타났으며, 변연간격은 모든 군에서 임상적 허용 범위 내에 속했다. The purpose of this study was to compare of marginal fitness of zirconia copings according to impression techniques and zirconia blocks. For the conventional impression, two types of rubber impression materials were used and digital impression was made by using an intraoral scanner. Zirconia copings were manufactured from three types of blocks. With each of ten zirconia copings was determined by surface roughness and marginal fitness. For surface roughness, LUXEN Smile(<TEX>$2.3{\pm}0.9{\mu}m$</TEX>) block was superior. And the lowest mean values and standard deviations of marginal gap for the HL specimens were <TEX>$26.5{\pm}2.1{\mu}m$</TEX> for buccal, <TEX>$27.2{\pm}2.1{\mu}m$</TEX> for lingual, and that of the HJ specimens <TEX>$29.6{\pm}4.0{\mu}m$</TEX> for mesial, <TEX>$29.0{\pm}3.0{\mu}m$</TEX> for distal. One-way ANOVA showed statistically significant difference between groups for marginal fitness(p<0.05). From the above results, the impression techniques and zirconia blocks had influence on marginal fit of the zirconia copings. Also the marginal fitness of all groups showed clinically acceptable range.

The Marginal Fitness of CAD / CAM All Ceramic Crowns Constructed by Two Types of Direct Digitization Techniques : An in Vitro Study

Background: In capturing a negative image, the digital impression secures a digital record for the purposeof designing and creating restorations. The introduction of scanning system presents a paradigm shift in the way of the dental impression procedure and encourages the accuracy of obtained restoration especially in the marginal area as a result of producing accurate final impression The digital system offers many advantages over the Conventional method.. The objective of this present in vitro study was to evaluate the marginal fitness of all ceramic crowns fabricated by direct digital scanning of the prepared tooth using two types of intra-oral cameras (Bluecam camera with strip light projection technique and Omnicam camera with video sampling technique). Materials and Methods: Sixteen sound upper first premolar teeth of comparable size were collected. Standardized preparation of all teeth samples were carried out to receive all ceramic crown restoration with deep chamfer finishing line (1mm), axial length (4mm) and convergence angle (6â—¦). The specimens divided in to two groups according to the type of digital impression technique: Group A, eight prepared teeth scanned directly by Bluecam camera; Group B, eight prepared teeth scanned directly by Omnicam camera. Then CAD/CAM all ceramic crowns constructed for each tooth sample. Marginal discrepancy was measured at Sixteen points per tooth using digital microscope at (120X) magnification. Results: Independent sample t-test was used to identify and localize the source of difference among the groups. It was found that there is statistically non- significant difference in the marginal gap mean values between (group A and group B). Conclusions: From the above result we can conclude that the two types of direct digitization techniques have the same accuracy.

A comprehensive test of the Trivers–Willard hypothesis in pronghorn ( Antilocapra americana )

Abstract The Trivers–Willard hypothesis (TWH) predicts that in a polygynous mating system, when fitness of male offspring is more variable than fitness of female offspring, mothers should invest more heavily in the sex with the highest marginal fitness returns. Females in good condition or high social rank should benefit by investing in sons, and females in poor condition or low social rank should benefit by investing in daughters. Many empirical studies have tested different aspects of the TWH, but no study has tested the assumptions and predictions in a single polygynous species using measures of maternal condition and maternal social rank, while accounting for random effects that can also influence offspring growth and survival. Here, we followed individuals in an isolated population of pronghorn on the National Bison Range, Montana, over multiple generations and tested the assumptions and predictions of the TWH. Pronghorn females who were in good condition or were socially dominant weaned larger fawns that were in better condition, but this advantage did not increase male fawn survival or reproductive success. We detected a slight bias in birth sex ratios according to maternal social rank, but overall we did not detect any adaptive benefit to mothers adopting a sex-biased investment strategy.

The Effect of Different Finishing Lines on the Marginal Fitness of Full Contour Zirconia and Glass Ceramic CAD/CAM Crowns (An in-vitro study)

Purpose: The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of two gingival finishing lines (90° shoulder and deep chamfer) on the marginal fitness of two types of full anatomic all-ceramic crowns; zirconia crowns (Zikonzhan) and glass ceramic crowns (IPS e-max CAD) milled with CAD/CAM system. Materials and Methods: Two dentoform teeth of left maxillary first molar were prepared with chamfer finishing line (CFL) and shoulder finishing line (SFL), respectively and duplicated to Nickel-Chromium master dies. Thirty two crowns were fabricated and grouped as follows: Group I: 8 zirconia crowns on CFL; Group II: 8 zirconia crowns on SFL; Group III: 8 glass ceramic crowns on CFL and Group IV: 8 glass ceramic crowns on SFL. Marginal gaps were measured at 4 indentations, each one was at center of each tooth surface and collectively 16 points were measured by using stereomicroscope (160X). The data were analyzed by One-way ANOVA and student t-tests. Results: Group I produced the least marginal gap (73.55µm); followed by Group II (92.60µm), and Group III (151.45µm) and the highest marginal gap was recorded by Group IV (162.34µm). Statistical analysis of the data showed that SFL produced significantly greater marginal gap on zirconia crowns in comparison with CFL. However, in glass ceramic crowns, CFL revealed less marginal gap compared to SFL but statistically was not significant. On the other hand, glass ceramic crowns significantly produced a greater marginal gap in comparison to zirconia crowns regardless type of finishing line. Conclusions: deep chamfer margin could be more preferable finishing line than 90° shoulder especially for zirconia full crowns. Furthermore, zirconia crowns could be more advisable than glass ceramic crowns in respect to marginal adaptation.

도재용 코발트-크롬 금속관의 변연적합도 비교

【Purpose: In this study, the marginal fitness of ceramic Co-Cr metal crown made by precision casting, milling, and selective laser melting method were compared. Methods: The ceramic Co-Cr metal crown manufactured by precision casting used the lost wax(LC specimen) method. The abutment were scanned and then made by milling(CM specimen), selective laser melting(CS specimen) method. The specimen were cut bucco-lingual and mesio-distal, and absolute marginal discrepancy and marginal gap were measured using a digital microscope. The surface roughness of the crown was also observed. Results: On the bucco-lingual axial, absolute marginal discrepancy was the LC specimen $31.72({\pm}4.58){\mu}m$ , the CM specimen $78.29({\pm}3.28){\mu}m$ and the CS specimen $143.13({\pm}3.83){\mu}m$ , respectively. On the bucco-lingual axial, marginal gap was the LC specimen $22.70({\pm}1.46){\mu}m$ , the CM specimen $22.70({\pm}1.49){\mu}m$ and CS specimen $99.60({\pm}1.57){\mu}m$ , respectively. Conclusion: For ceramic Co-Cr metal crowns, LC specimen was superior for absolute marginal discrepancy and marginal gap. The surface of metal crowns by selective laser melting were the roughest.】

Estimating Fitness of Viral Quasispecies from Next-Generation Sequencing Data.

The quasispecies model is ubiquitous in the study of viruses. While having lead to a number of insights that have stood the test of time, the quasispecies model has mostly been discussed in a theoretical fashion with little support of data. With next-generation sequencing (NGS), this situation is changing and a wealth of data can now be produced in a time- and cost-efficient manner. NGS can, after removal of technical errors, yield an exceedingly detailed picture of the viral population structure. The widespread availability of cross-sectional data can be used to study fitness landscapes of viral populations in the quasispecies model. This chapter highlights methods that estimate the strength of selection in selective sweeps, assesses marginal fitness effects of quasispecies, and finally infers the fitness landscape of a viral quasispecies, all on the basis of NGS data.

Facial fluctuating asymmetry is not associated with childhood ill-health in a large British cohort study.

The idea that symmetry in facial traits is associated with attractiveness because it reliably indicates good physiological health, particularly to potential sexual partners, has generated an extensive literature on the evolution of human mate choice. However, large-scale tests of this hypothesis using direct or longitudinal assessments of physiological health are lacking. Here, we investigate relationships between facial fluctuating asymmetry (FA) and detailed individual health histories in a sample (n = 4732) derived from a large longitudinal study (Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children) in South West England. Facial FA was assessed using geometric morphometric analysis of facial landmark configurations derived from three-dimensional facial scans taken at 15 years of age. Facial FA was not associated with longitudinal measures of childhood health. However, there was a very small negative association between facial FA and IQ that remained significant after correcting for a positive allometric relationship between FA and face size. Overall, this study does not support the idea that facial symmetry acts as a reliable cue to physiological health. Consequently, if preferences for facial symmetry do represent an evolved adaptation, then they probably function not to provide marginal fitness benefits by choosing between relatively healthy individuals on the basis of small differences in FA, but rather evolved to motivate avoidance of markers of substantial developmental disturbance and significant pathology.

Diel fragrance pattern correlates with olfactory preferences of diurnal and nocturnal flower visitors inSalix caprea(Salicaceae)

Floral scent, often a complex mixture of several volatile organic compounds (VOCs), has generally been interpreted as an adaptation to attract pollinators. However, not many studies have analysed which VOCs are functionally relevant for the reproductive success of a plant. Here, we show that, in Salix caprea (Salicaceae), temporal changes in floral scent emission during the day and night attract two different types of flower visitor: bees during the day and moths during the evening and night. We analysed the contribution of the two flower visitor groups to the reproductive success of the plant. The differences in scent emitted during the peak activity times of flower visitors (day versus night) were quantified and the response of 13 diurnal/nocturnal pollinator taxa to the floral scents was tested using gas chromatographic and electroantennographic techniques. Many of the c. 40 identified scent compounds were physiologically active, and bees and moths responded to nearly identical sets of compounds, although the response strengths differed. In bioassays, bees preferred the most abundant 1,4-dimethoxybenzene over lilac aldehyde, a compound with increased emission at night, whereas moths preferred lilac aldehyde over 1,4-dimethoxybenzene. Pollination by wind plus nocturnal pollinators (mainly moths) or by wind alone contributed less to seed set than pollination by wind plus diurnal pollinators (mainly bees). This suggests that the emission of scent during the night and attracting moths have no significant effect on reproductive success. It is possible that the emission of lilac aldehydes and other compounds at night is s result of phylogenetic constraints. Future studies should investigate whether moths may produce a marginal fitness gain in some years and/or some populations. © 2014 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 175, 624–640.