Maqasid al-Shari Research Articles

A Study on the Need for VBI in Malaysian Islamic Financial Industry and its Shari'ah Perspective

The purpose of this paper is to highlight the need for Value-Based Intermediation (VBI) in Malaysia introduced by Bank Negara Malaysia (BNM) in March 2018, under the guidance of Shari'ah Advisory Council (SAC), which is the decisive authority in matters relating to Shari'ah, analyse the aim of VBI against that of SDGs in the light of Maqasid al-Sahri'ah, and to assess VBI from the perspective of Shari'ah. The growth of Islamic banking in Malaysia experienced a boost where the market share of Islamic banking assets grew from 7.1% in 2010 to 28% in 2016, but there has been a decline in Islamic finance's annual growth from 24.2% in 2011 to only 8.2% in 2016. There could be various reasons for this decline, such as maintaining a steady growth requires constant innovation in the products and services offered. However, innovation becomes difficult in case of IFIs, since they have to comply with legal and Shari'ah rules at the same time. Qualitative method of study is used for this paper. It is found in the study that VBI not only conforms with the principles of Shari'ah but also re-focuses IFIs to achieve the objectives of Shari'ah or fulfill Maqasid al-Shari'ah. The study also found that VBI is also in line with the SDGs, which are human-made goals presented to the world by United Nations around 2012. However, while SDGs are prone to changes and criticism, the objectives, or goals of Shari'ah are holistic, permanent, and divine. VBI is a concept applicable only in Malaysia's Islamic Finance Industry until the time this paper is written, and therefore, it focuses only on the Malaysian IFI. There is a need to understand why VBI was needed in Malaysian IFI despite each Islamic bank having their own Shari'ah committee and SAC of BNM and this paper will help develop that understanding.

The revitalization of Maqasid al-Mu‘amalat according to Abdullah bin Bayyah and Its implications on Islamic law

The revitalization of Islamic law continues to experience renewal in welcoming the new world economy era that offers the influence of global cultural acculturation and advances in information technology on the one hand, and the rise of spiritualism and nationalism on the other. The study of economics is not new in the discourse of Islamic law, which is better known as mu'amalat. For a long time, the discourse on the objectives of the Sharia (maqasid al-shari‘ah) has become a non-negotiable need. The necessity of knowing it, the urgency of studying it, and the implications of Muslim scholars’ thoughts in navigating the ocean of Islamic law to arrive at the sea of ​​wisdom are strongly influenced by maqasid al-shari‘ah. This is based on the assumption that it is not enough just to know and examine in detail the textual texts which can result in a misunderstanding of the purposes and objectives of God and His Messenger in formulating Islamic law, but it is very necessary to study the values and objectives of the Sharia texts that were revealed. Thus, Ibn Bayyah tried to combine the study of maqasid al-shari'ah with mu'amalat based on the objectives of the transaction and the results of observation of reality. In his research results, he stated that the revitalization of objectives of wealth as a new basis of thought in the discourse of Islamic law would update the concept of the jurisprudence of transactions in its old face which was rigid, out of date, conservative, and less applicable. This is like the human need for wealth considered as a crucial thing that occupies the first position in objectives of wealth (maqasid al-mu'amalat).

Social Change in the Time of Covid-19: A Phenomenal Study in Malaysia from the Perspective of Maqasid Al-Sharī‘ah

The COVID-19 pandemic has made a huge impact on Malaysia since the first Movement Control Order (MCO) was implemented in March 2020. All sectors including the economic sector, tourism, services, sports, the religious sector and entertainment have been subjected to the Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs), such as the wearing of face masks, hygienic care and physical distancing. Although compliance with the SOPs can still be questioned, it is undeniable that it has changed the society’s way of living in Malaysia as the people are urged to adopt and adapt to the new norms in order to combat the spread of the virus. In fact, social change in times of COVID-19 can be considered as a new ‘urf (custom) practiced by the whole Islamic world. The issue is that these new changes coming with the application of the various SOPs for virus prevention are claimed to be for the benefit of religion, health, economy and education. Through phenomenal methodologies/Using a phenomenological methodology, this study emphasizes two main objectives, that are, explaining social change due to COVID-19 in Malaysia and analysing the correlation between social change and the parameters of maqāsid al-sharī‘ah (the higher purposes of Shari’ah) in each new practice. In conclusion, it should be emphasized that the current social change must correspond with maqasid al-shari’ah especially in dealing with the matters of the religion.

Can religious values reinvigorate the links between development and falāh?

PurposePrevious studies have challenged the Human Development Index’s (HDI) ability to emulate the achievement of falāh (happiness). This paper aims to evaluate the role of religious values in establishing a positive link between the current measurement of development and falāh.Design/methodology/approachFirst, this study derives an improved value-loaded development measure from the concept of Maqasid al-Shari’ah (the higher objectives of Islamic law). Second, this paper compares the calculated Maqasid al-Shari’ah Index (MSI) with the HDI of some Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) countries by using the parametric pair difference z-test and t-test along with the non-parametric Wilcoxon signed-rank test. Finally, the relationship of both indices and the proxy of falāh are examined by using the ordinary least square and the generalised method of moments estimations.FindingsAs far as the religious-led development is concerned, the HDI underestimates OIC countries’ development progress. Here, the MSI can better embody the attainment of falāh than the HDI.Research limitations/implicationsThis study only covers limited OIC countries due to the data availability issue.Practical implicationsThe cultural-based development stemming from the religious values proves useful for putting the government effort towards the attainment of the objective of human well-being in the right direction.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study examining the empirical relationship between the MSI and falāh.

TAFSIR MAQĀSIDI UNTUK MAQĀSID AL-SHARI‘AH

This study discusses the pattern of maqāsidi interpretation which is positioned as the foundation in creating maqasid al-Shari'ah, which means that all benefits will lead to maqasid al-Qur'an. The method used in this research is library research based on several books and journals that examine the interpretation of maqasidi and its relationship with the creation of maqasid al-syari'ah. The study shows that maqasidi interpretation is a spirit in the interpretive process that moves dynamically along with human civilization to present universal moral ideals/al-maqasid al-`āmmah. This study also shows that as a method, maqasidi interpretation, requires a reconstruction of the interpretation of the Qur'an based on maqasid as a theory. The theory of maqasid shari'ah as a knife of analysis in a procedure which is then used to understand the Qur'an, resulting in a product that focuses its study on the values ​​of the maqasid verses it interprets. Through this type of interpretation, the general objective of the Shari'ah to present maslahah and prevent the destruction of the world and the hereafter, can be realized. A pattern of interpretation that places benefit to maintain human purity.

TRANSFORMASI FITRAH DALAM PERSPEKTIF MAQASHID AL-SYARI’AH

Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT), often a debate in the midst of globalization, both in the media and in online media, more so in Indonesia with the largest Muslim population in the world, both pro on the grounds of human rights (human rights) or gender. However, this discussion does not recede until here, but rather increasingly sticking out. The study in this study is, what is the view of maqasid al-Shari'ah towards LGBT in Indonesia? The benefit of this research is to know in depth and prove scientifically lgbt actions both normatively and juridically in Indonesia in the perspective of Maqashid al-Shari'ah. This research is a library reseach taken from some opinions of scholars' fiqh both classical and contemporary and the percentage of legislation in Indonesia, more articles that are pro against the LGBT movement. Bahkan MUI telah mengeluarkan Fatwa sejak 2014 Nomor 57 tentang keharaman tindakan LGBT dengan alasan tindakan yang menyalahi firah manusia dan merupakan perbuatan fahisyah. Begitu juga dalam Undang-Undang Nomor 1 tahun 1974 dan Kompilasi Hukum Islam dengan tegas menjelaskan bahwa perkawinan dilakukan oleh seorang laki-laki dan perempuan untuk membina keluarga yang sakinah. Even MUI has issued a Fatwa since 2014 Number 57 on the prohibition of LGBT actions on the grounds of actions that violate human firah and are fahisyah acts. Similarly, in Law No. 1 of 1974 and compilation of Islamic law expressly explains that marriage is performed by a man and a woman to foster a sakinah family.

The Adoption of Found Child According to Islamic Law and Law No. 3 of 2006 on Religious Courts in the Perspective of Maqasid Al-Shari'ah

Islam is a religion that regulates everything in the life of Muslims. No exception in the case of adoption, the jurisdiction of the court up to the adoption of a minor. in the case of child adoption. Today, Islam applies limitations in some matters, such as the prohibition of lineage, the establishment of non-mahram relationships to the issue of inheritance and guardianship. In addition to that field, there is the authority of the judge in the Religious Court to be ijtihad to determine the best decision for the child of the findings as the extent of its authority is based on Law No. 3 of 2006 on Religious Justice. The purpose of this study is to analyze how the legal impact on the adoption status of the findings based on the rationale maqasidus syar'i and its relevance to the development of Islamic law. Research methods use the study of literature through its sources of reference through primary law, both derived from religious sources and from positive legal sources that apply in Indonesia. In addition, the researcher used jurisprudence from the relevant judicial decisions used.The results of this research are (1) through the approach of maqasid al shari'ah doruriyah that children (including children of discovery) must be protected their rights, both their right to life (an nafs) and their intellect (al aql), the right of lineage, religion, as well as paying attention to his rights, including his right to obtain the obligatory will/right of inheritance from the parents who raised him (al maal), (2) The legal impact is, the child is found as a person, he is an orphan so the religious treatment is the same as an orphan. While the adopted child then the legal status can be assessed through recognition by the adoptive parents such as the child of guardianship, then the adopted child has the right to be guarded by his adoptive parents due to the absence of a lineage guardian. (3) While the relevance to the development of Islamic law is that in maintenance (other than the issue of lineage and inheritance), then the child has the same protection and education status of both adoptive parents. There is a need for efforts from various related parties to prioritize the benefits to protect from unwanted things and save the lives of children.

Towards Maqasid al-Shari'ah Based Nursing Ethics

Nursing ethics denotes the moral philosophy in nursing practices or a system of principles governing the conduct of nurses that are distinguished between morally good and evil or right and wrong. This system of principles adopted much from conventional moral theories in nursing practices to help nurses figure out what actions are right and wrong. Islam plays a crucial role in providing guidelines on the permissibility and acceptability of nursing practices, especially for Muslim nurses. This study conducts qualitative approaches based on library research. This article discusses the concept of nursing ethics and how it differs from Maqasid al-Shari'ah concerning decision-making processes. Both promote the benefit and prevent harm, but Maqasid al-Shari'ah is more comprehensive in guiding nurses in nursing practices. Then, several applications are presented as examples of how Maqasid al-Shari'ah can be used as a binding principle in nursing ethics.

Maqasid Al Syari'ah; Cara Islam Menghadapi Pandemi Covid 19

Hundreds of times human life has been visited by epidemics. It is also caused by disease outbreaks that a people have perished and been swallowed up by history. However, the same thing is always repeated, epidemics always come from carelessness caused by human actions themselves. As if not taking the existing lesson, humans naturally have a dichotomous character, apart from having a strong instinct to defend their life, on the other hand, humans have a tendency to do things that lead to their own destruction. Islam as a rational religion is required to provide certainty for problems related to the plague that is shaking the established order of life of Muslims. Islam must be a solution in providing a more definite answer to the direction of Muslim civilization in the covid-19 pandemic season should be built to lead to a new normal era. One answer is to use the perspective of maqasid al-shari'ah in exploring the sources of sharia law to find solutions for Muslims during the Covid-19 pandemic.

Maqasid al-Shari’ah in Islamic Law Renewal: The Impact of New Normal Rules on Islamic Law Practices during the Covid-19 Pandemic

The vast and multidimensional impact of the Covid-19 pandemic has forced all countries to establish policies to prevent the transmission of Covid-19, including Indonesia. Not a few countries are not ready to make decisions to find new, more effective ways to prevent Covid-19. In Islamic law, ijtihad is part of lawmaking in the implementation of worship and muamalah, which solves problems that arise and mitigates policy implementation. This article uses a normative juridical approach to the issue because it can showcase the benefit of Islamic law for humans. Moreover, it aims to generate ideas in the renewal of Islamic law, especially in the implementation of worship and muamalah (social transaction/relation), and inform the government to make decisions that intersect with Islamic law during the Covid-19 pandemic. The focus of this research is how does covid-19 affect the practice of Islamic law in worship and mu`amalah? This study finds that government policies and regulations are currently in line with Islamic law. The most critical considerations in determining the compatibility of government policies and rules with shari’a are maintaining the soul’s safety, maintaining the continuity of religion through rukhshah, and maintaining the economy. Also, the Islamic rulings (fatwa) issued by ulama in response to government policies and rules are expected to guide worship and mu`amalah, build awareness and solidarity of Muslims, and relate to the people’s economy today.

Muslim Friendly Traditional and Complementary Medicine Guidelines: A Study on Wet Cupping Treatment and Practices in Malaysia

Ministry of Health Malaysia (MOH) has established Traditional and Complementary Medicines Division (TCM) in February 2004. The ministry has recognised wet cupping therapy as one of the traditional and complementary medicines practices under this division. Under TCM Act 2016, the MOH is the only authority to govern the policy and to impose the ethical practice’s guidelines to be enforced on wet cupping practitioners in providing services that are safe and clinically proven as the best. It is expected that wet cupping will be one of the drivers in the global halal treatment industry in Malaysia. This article attempts to provide the basis for future study on the perception and expectations of wet cupping service delivery in the rapidly growing Muslim-friendly medical care sector. On the whole, practitioners must adhere to these guidelines in order to ensure that the Maqasid al-Shari’ah, which are the protection of a patient’s life, intellect and property are safeguarded. All of this is in accordance with the basic purpose of a Muslim’s life, and that is to obtain Allah SWT's blessings in all circumstances.

The Concept of Wasatiyyah in Consumption: An Analysis from Islamic Financial Jurisprudence

In Islam, consumption is not just the act of fulfilling human wants, but also an action that contributes to the well-being of ourselves and others. The goal of consumption in an Islamic framework is to satisfy personal needs that bring the pleasure of Allah and contribute to social development. Therefore, this study has been designed to discuss the concept of consumption in Islam by reviewing several journal articles in the field of Islamic jurisprudence. The study explores the act of consumption based on the moral and religious principles of Islamic shariah. In Islam, Muslims are guided to consume based on permissibility, wholesomeness, cleanliness, priority, and maqasid al-shari’ah (higher objectives of Islamic law). Most significantly, the study focuses on the principle of moderation (wasatiyyah) as it relates to consumption, as wastefulness and miserliness have an impact not only on individuals but also society and the economy. The study expects to improve Muslim consumer behaviour by acting as a reminder of the moral principles underlying consumption.

Maqasid Al-Shari’ah and The Challenge of Population Control in Northern Nigeria

Nigeria is the most populous nation in Africa. It is the most populous black nation in the world. It is also estimated to be the third most populous country in the world by 2050 with a population of 399 million people. In all ramifications, Nigeria’s population is growing faster than development can cater to, faster than resources to maintain it. The predominantly Muslim North constitutes the larger percentage of Nigeria’s population. Thus, it is unsurprising that the region suffers mass poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, and insecurity. This article discussed the issue of overpopulation in northern Nigeria and its adverse effect on the region. Furthermore, the issue of population control within the context of maqasid al-Shari’ah was discussed. The author sought to demonstrate that despite popular opposition within the populace and religious circles in northern Nigeria, there is room for population control within the shariah, and it is in fact encouraged in certain circumstances. Keywords: population, maqasid, shariah, Nigeria, population control

Broiler farms practice without AGP as an Islamic conceptionin the strategy to achieve “asuh” food

The use of Antibiotics Growth Promoters (AGP) was once a reliance for Broiler farms that aim to improve immunity as well as trigger the growth of broiler. It turned out that the use of AGP elicit a variety of very harmful impacts on human’s health, the presence of residues of antibiotics in broiler meat will reduce resistance of humans who consume them to some types of antibiotics even antibiotics that are prepared to handle the case of multi-resistant bacteria, namely the presence of antibiotic residues in broiler meat that will reduce the resistance of humans who consume them. So no longer impervious to some antibiotics even antibiotics that are prepared to handle the case of multi-resistant bacteria. This has become a limiting factor for the community, especially Muslims who are required to consume foods that are not only halal but bring benefits and do not contain harmful substances as admonitions in the Quran and hadith. This reality requires options to solve problems and answer real problems in people's lives wisely and contextually. Although AGP is required by the broiler, but based on many research results have shown that its role can be substituted with the addition of feed additives such as probiotics, enzymes and herbs as feed quality improvement efforts, included the implementation of biosecurity which must be carried out in an integrated manner. Broiler farms that implement good industry management has proved able to guarantee the availability of broiler as a source of animal protein is Safe, Healthy, and Whole Halal (in the Indonesian acronym is ASUH) and has a wide market share. This context be in accordance to the conception of food safety in Islam, food safety from the Islamic normative context namely halal and food safety from the health aspect, namely Thayyib. This paper responds to the issue of food safety which has been a fidgetiness for all stratums of Muslim society, whereas the ASUH food source is one of the fulfilments of the main points of the Maqasid al-Shari'ah or the general objective stipulated in Islamic law, namely to realize goodness, provide benefits and avoid damage to humans.

Revocation of The Attachment III of The Presidential Regulation Number 10 of 2021 in The Perspective of Human Rights and Maqasid Al-Shari‘ah

This research is based on a decision of the President of the Republic of Indonesia, Joko Widodo, by revoking the Attachment III of the Presidential Regulation Number 10 of 2021 concerning the business sector of investment in the liquor and alcoholic drink industry. This presidential decree attracts a wide attention from all levels of Indonesian society. Most of them welcome the decision, and a few are more optimistic about the implementation of the presidential regulation because it has actually offered a clear and proportional regulation. To get a sharp analysis result, the researcher looks at this constitutional fact through the theory of human rights and maqasid al-shari’ah. Based on the research results, it is stated that the decision of the President of the Republic of Indonesia by abolishing the presidential regulation is in line with the basic values ​​and principles contained in human rights and maqasid al-shari’ah. Even so, there are some basic rights points that need serious attention from the government, particularly how to revive the people’s economy which is teetering due to the Covid-19 pandemic. At least, this is the reason for arguing for groups who are oppossing to the presidential decision. Abstrak: Penelitian ini bertumpu pada sebuah keputusan Presiden Republik Indonesia, Joko Widodo, dengan mencabut Lampiran III Peraturan Presiden Nomor 10 Tahun 2021 tentang bidang usaha penanaman modal dan investasi industri minuman keras dan minuman beralkohol. Keputusan presiden ini cukup mengundang perhatian dari seluruh lapisan masyarakat Indonesia. Sebagian besar dari mereka menyambut gembira keputusan itu, dan sebagian kecil lebih optimis dengan pemberlakuan peraturan presiden itu karena sebenarnya telah menawarkan suatu regulasi yang jelas dan proporsional. Untuk mendapatkan hasil analisis yang tajam, peneliti melihat fakta konstitusi ini melalui teori Hak Asasi Manusia dan maqasid al-shari’ah. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian menyatakan bahwa keputusan yang diambil Presiden Republik Indonesia dengan menghapus peraturan presiden itu sejalan dengan nilai-nilai dan prinsip-prinsip dasar yang tertuang dalam hak asasi manusia dan maqasid al-shari’ah. Meskipun demikian, ada beberapa poin hak-hak dasar yang perlu mendapatkan perhatian serius dari pemerintah terutama bagaimana membangkitkan perekonomian rakyat yang tertatih-tatih akibat pandemic Covid-19. Setidaknya, inilah yang menjadi alasan mendasar kelompok yang berseberangan dengan keputusan presiden tersebut.

Maqasid al-Shari’ah in Islamic finance: Harmonizing theory and reality

This paper aims to clarify how maqaṣid al-Shari’ah (objective of Shariah law) plays its role in Islamic finance, particularly in creating a harmony between Shariah rulings in theory and their application in current circumstances. Based on library research, this study applies inductive approach and descriptive method in analysing various literatures. The finding reveals that the roles of maqasid al-Shari’ah are identified as the following: harmonizing between the text of revelation and the actual situation; considering unusual circumstances and overcoming current issues. All of them reflect how maqasid al-Shariah could pragmatically adapt Shariah rulings into the real operation of Islamic finance. Since this paper comes up with two cases: replicating conventional products to be Islamic ones and implementing floating rate in Islamic prices, it provides a practical discussion on this topic.

Morality Issues in The Islamic Criminal Law and The Indonesian Criminal Code Draft under The Perspective of Maqasid Al-Shari’ah

This is a bibliographical research to highlight the moral issues in the Islamic Criminal Law and the Indonesian Criminal Code Draft, such as pornography, acts of adultery, cohabiting, prevention of pregnancy and abortion, and rape on the perspective of maqasid al-shari’ah”. The intersection between the principles of the Islamic Criminal Law and those of the Criminal Code Draft in Indonesia can be seen from a transformative relationship occurs substantively and contextually through the five features in daruriyyat al-khamsah of the theory of maqasid al-shari’ah. In addition, the transformation of the two legal systems can also be measured through the three basic concepts that exist in the Islamic Criminal Law namely zawajir (repressive), jawabir (preventive), and ta’dib (educative) while still pays attention to the universal values such as justice (al-‘adalah), freedom (al-hurriyyah), equality (al-musawah), wisdom (al-hikmah), and human kindness (masalih al-‘ibad).

Ethical Dimension of Maqasid al-Shari’ah and its Implication to Human Capital Development

AbstractThe prescriptions of Shari’ah are aimed at protecting six critical areas of human needs namely; life, religion, mental health, offspring, property, and dignity. Maqasid al-Shari’ah were earlier treated as an aspect of Maslahah Mursalah (public utility). They were treated as separate principles aiding the understanding of the wisdoms and intents of the texts. Transformation in the pattern of life of modern societies caused expansion in the scope of Maqasid. In modern times, Maqasid include aspects of material development that feature in Human Development Index. This paper employed theoretical method and analyzed the ethics embodied in the objectives of Shari’ah. The aim is to find out how the ethics shape human conduct and facilitate non-material aspects of human capital development. Its findings are that, the objectives of Shari’ah on the protection of religion, life, and mind can refine conduct, inspire morality, develop and secure the mind. Thus, the ethics imbued in Shari’ah instructions transform individuals into worthy citizens, shape their life and conduct, and make them productive and sensitive about the well-being of fellow human beings. These changes in human conducts by means of Shari’ah-inspired ethical transformation are a form of non-material aspects of human capital development.

CRISPR-Cas9 and He Jiankui's Case: an Islamic Bioethics Review using Maqasid al-Shari'a and Qawaid Fighiyyah.

The discovery of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and theCRISPR-mediated protein 9 (CRISPR-Cas9) immediately revealed numerous potential therapeutic applications. Although CRISPR-Cas9 will most likely be useful for addressing issues such as genetic diseases and related medical issues, use of this modality for germline modification generates complex ethical questions regarding the safety and efficacy, human genetic enhancement, and "designer" babies. In this article, the case of theHe Jiankui affair is used as an example of the potential for unregulated use of CRISPR-Cas9 technology. In 2018, Dr HeJiankui reported that he had successfully edited human embryos. This work clearly violates all international principles of bioethics. As such, the purpose of this paper is to explore the ethical challenges inherent in the use of CRISPR-Cas9 for human germline editing from the perspectives of the goals of Islamic law (Maqasid al Shari'a) and the major jurisprudential maxims (Qawaid Fiqhiyyah). We argue that from an Islamic standpoint, the therapeutic application of CRISPR-Cas9 for germline editing may be permissible if the safety and efficacy concerns are resolved and if the principles of Maqasid al-Shari'a are fulfilled.

The Application of Maqasid Al-Shari’ah in the Foreign Policy of Islamic States

Religion is crucial in the foreign policy formulation of Islamic states. Islamic law can play an important role in foreign policy formulation as Maqasid Al-Shariah (Objectives of Islamic Law) are universal. Maqasid Al-Shariah is divided into three categories: general Maqasid, specific Maqasid, and partial Maqasid. Despite this universality, there is an inadequate explanation of the application of Maqasid Al-Shariah in foreign policy. Therefore, this study aims to explore the application of Maqasid Al-Shariah in the foreign policy of Islamic states. The study employed a qualitative approach in which document analysis was used to gather information from the United Nations Human Rights report of 2015. The study found that Maqasid Al-Shariah can play a significant role in the foreign policy of Islamic states through the protection of people’s life, property, health, religion, and dignity. Further analysis revealed that Maqasid Al-Shariah can be successfully incorporated in the foreign policy-making process of Islamic states, particularly where international treaties neglect or contradict the principles of Islamic law. Hence, Maqasid Al-Shariah should be fully implemented in the foreign policy process of governments of Islamic countries at both the national and international levels.