Slope Map Research Articles

Groundwater Vulnerability Study to Traditional Gold Mine Processing Pollution Using SYNTACS Method and GIS Approach

Groundwater vulnerability study research conducted in Paya Ateuk Village, Pasie Raja District uses the SINTACS method. This method is an overlay method that combines 7 primary maps, namely soil texture maps, infiltration maps, slope maps, groundwater depth maps, rock unit maps, aquifer lithology maps, and hydroulic conductivity maps. Then the results of the assessment on the primary map parts are multiplied by the weight on the SINTACS classification and the results are combined into 1 groundwater vulnerability overlay map. The results of the map overlay produce 822 sections that have a range of groundwater vulnerability values ​​at a score of 103.75 – 201.5 with low to high classification. Karst hill areas generally have moderate vulnerability values. Whereas in the lowlands with residential land use has a high vulnerability. This is due to the flat slope with sandstone, and moderate infiltration. Besides that, the texture of the soil is large and the depth of the groundwater is shallow. So that contamination on the surface can easily affect the quality of water in groundwater. Meanwhile, the groundwater vulnerability value is high in a narrow area with the use of paddy fields. Based on measurements of the quality of groundwater in wells owned by residents, it shows that the groundwater in the research location is of good quality. This is due to the large number of natural phytoremediation plants around the research area. Although the quality of groundwater is in good condition. The government as the policy maker still needs to regulate and provide official permits for traditional gold miners who are classified as illegal and continue to monitor the environment around traditional gold processing areas.

Evaluasi Kualitas Tanah Berbasis Sistem Infromasi Geografis di Lahan Sawah Kecamatan Denpasar Timur untuk Menentukan Arahan Pengelolaan

Evaluation of Soil Quality Based on Geographical Information Systems in Paddy Fields of East Denpasar District to Determine Land Management Directions. This study aims to determine soil quality, limiting factors, mapping of soil quality, and provide management directions or recommendations. This research was conducted in the rice fields of East Denpasar District from November 2020 to January 2021. This research was conducted using survey methods, soil analysis in the laboratory, and determination of soil quality. Soil samples were taken by purposive sampling technique on each homogeneous land unit. The homogenous land units determination is done by overlaying the soil types, slope maps and land use of the East Denpasar Subdistrict. Soil quality indicators measured as minimum data sets (MDS): soil bulk density, soil texture, porosity, field capacity water content, pH, C-organic, CEC, base saturation, nutrients (N, P and K), and C-biomass. The results of soil quality determination at each homogenous land units are mapped with QGIS 3.8.3 software and then the land management direction is determined for each homogenous land units. The results showed that the soil quality at the research site was classified as good at SLH 1 (Subak Padanggalak, Biaung, Poh Manis, Temaga, Taman, Dlod Sema and Buaji) and 3 (Subak Buaji, Padanggalak, Temaga, Taman, Anggabaya, Uma Desa and Uma Layu) with SQR values of 24 and 23. SLH 2 (Subak Biaung and Buaji), 4 (Subak Padanggalak), 5 (Subak Taman, Padanggalak and Paang) and 6 (Subak Paang and Saba) showed moderate soil quality with SQR scores were 26, 26, 27 and 27, respectively. The limiting factors in the study area include: N, P, texture, field capacity water content and C-biomass. It is recommended to cultivate the soil using a tractor and fertilize it with manure, urea and SP-36 in paddy fields.

Analisis Potensi dan Status Kerusakan Tanah pada Lahan Kering Berbasis Sistem Informasi Geografis di Kecamatan Baturiti, Kabupaten Tabanan, Provinsi Bali

Analysis of Soil Degradation Potential and Status in Agricultural Dry Land Based on Geographic Information Systems in Baturiti Sub-District. Biomass production activities that do not pay attention to conservation principles can cause soil degradation. This will reduce the productivity of natural resources, forestry and agriculture. The purpose of this research are to determine the potential, status, and distribution of soil degradation on dry land farming in Baturiti Sub-district. The method used on this research is a comparative descriptive method. Based on overlay of land use map, slope map, and soil type map using geographic information system, 9 homogenous land units were obtained. The land use observed was mixed gardens and dry fields with field observations of surface rocks and solum depth. Samples were analyzed in the laboratory to determine bulk density, total porosity, texture, permeability, pH, DHL, and microbial count. Determination of degradation status based on standard criteria of soil degradation. The results showed three classes of potential soil degradation, namely the potential for mild soil degradation at Perean Tengah, medium soil degradation potential at Baturiti, Antapan, Luwus, Bangli, Angseri, Candikuning, and the high potential soil degradation at Antapan. The soil degradation status was found lightly damaged status with permeability limiting factors at Baturiti and partially Antapan, with limiting factors for permeability and composition of fractions at Candikuning and partially Antapan, limiting factors for permeability and porosity total at Perean Tengah.

Pengembangan Data Geospasial Melalui Pemetaan Desa Dengan Menggunakan Drone Di Kelurahan Pondidaha Kabupaten Konawe

Geospatial data is indispensable as basic information for resource utilization and area development. Geospatial data in the form map is necessary to be owned by each administrative area until smallest unit (village/kelurahan). However, the availability of geospatial data in the village is still very limited so that information about the geographical conditions and potentials of the village is not thoroughly known. Administratively, Pondidaha Kelurahan is included in the Pondidaha Sub-district, Konawe Regency, but does not have sufficient geospatial data yet to describe the geographical condition of the area. Therefore, the community service team together with apparatus and community of Pondidaha compiled geospatial data in the Pondidaha by using drone. The activities were started from the collection of secondary data as initial and supporting data in field activities, then continued by coordination with government and community of Pondidaha. Making geospatial data using drones is done by these following steps: (1) making work maps; (2) identifying, validating and field mapping; (3) processing GCP/ICP control point data; (4) processing aerial photography data; (5) making digital land maps; (6) compiling spatial databases; (7) cartographic and printing processes. Geospatial data generated include: landform map, topographical map, slope map, administrative map and land use map of Pondidaha.

Pelatihan dan Pendampingan Informasi Geospasial Berbasis Sistem Informasi Geografi (SIG) dalam Meningkatkan Kompetensi Guru Geografi

The rapid development of GIS geospatial information technology demands proficiency from geography teachers, but teachers tend to have minimal knowledge of the technology, and even the impression that teaching and learning activities are not being used optimally. I have. GIS geospatial information technology is very useful in describing environmental problems, metropolitan areas, floods, and various activities to establish trends, determine best locations, and identify patterns and models. The purpose of this activity is the enhancement and application of geographic information technology based on geographic information systems for geography teachers in the form of training and instruction, including data entry, management, analysis and presentation. In carrying out this activity, the participants, while receiving a strengthening of GIS concepts and GIS components, created maps of slopes, elevations and landslides in operational demonstration activities, then classified and scored them, and evaluated them. Click Overlay (Overlay) to create a new map with the new classification. The results of this activity show better control as well as higher enthusiasm and responsiveness during the training activity. The whole operation went smoothly. In addition, GIS education can enhance the effectiveness of geography education through application in schools.

PERANAN UAV (UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE) DALAM IDENTIFIKASI ANCAMAN LONGSOR TINGGI DI SUNGAI CI DURIAN, DAERAH CIGUDEG, BOGOR

Technological developments in the field of photography, especially in the manufacture of 3D models from a collection of aerial photographs can be quickly and effectively with Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV). This research was conducted in CI Durian River as the target object of 3D modeling. The study area located in Bogor regency, West Java province has a morphology of hills to low hills with winding rivers and composed by the Bojongmanik formation (Tmb). The dominant rock units in the study area are sandstone and claystone. The process of data retrieval using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) can be used to perform mapping quickly and accurately at a more affordable cost. This research uses descriptive and interpretive methods. Primary Data in the study is all the data acquired through drones. Secondary Data are data such as slope maps and topographic maps. Primary Data and secondary data can be a reference in detecting landslides in the study area. The tool used in this study is to use unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) technology in the form of drones by utilizing aerial photography data which is then processed into Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data. The use of Ground Control Point (GCP) can certainly add accuracy to the creation of DEM data. The Data is a reference in the interpretation of the threat of landslides that occurred in the study area. Primary data in the form of slope can validate secondary data in the form of slope maps. The dominant factors that influence the threat of landslides in the study area include: topographic factors and steep slopes. Topography and slope factors are very steep slopes are the main factors of high landslide threat in the study area.

The Quantitative Geomorphology of Upper Citarik Watershed and Its Implication to the Flash Flood Potential

The research area is the Upper Citarik Watershed, located in the eastern Bandung Basin, West Java, Indonesia. This research aims to identify the quantitative geomorphology, especially the morphometry of the Upper Citarik Watershed, and its implication for the potential of flash floods. This research was conducted through a studio analysis with the support of thematic maps such as geological and slope maps. The parameters used in this morphometry calculation consist of linear aspects (stream order, stream length, mean stream length, stream length ratio, bifurcation ratio, and mean bifurcation ratio); areal aspect (drainage density, drainage texture, form factor, ratio of circularity, ratio of elongation, and length of overland flow); and relief aspects (watershed relief and relief ratio). The research results show that the Upper Citarik Watershed consists of 17 sub-watersheds that share relatively similar characteristics, including elongated shape with high relief and rather steep - steep slopes. It is predominantly composed of volcanic rocks and slow rising of flash flood. It shows that from a quantitative geomorphology perspective, the research area has high resistance to flash floods. Land use changes need to be a concern to prevent a significant decrease in the ability of land to deal with the flash floods.

Effect landslide hazard mitigation using an integrated of Analytical Hierarchy Process and Multi Criteria Evaluation: A case study the Jeneberang watershed

Jeneberang watershed has an important role in maintaining environmental stability, especially for the surrounding area. In 2004 a landslide occurred in the Jeneberang watershed which caused casualties and material losses. This study aims to determine the distribution and level of vulnerability to landslides in the Jeneberang watershed and to formulate an effective scenario to reduce the level of vulnerability. This research is located the Jeneberang watershed, South Sulawesi Province. The data used include data on the weight of each parameter and criteria for determining landslide susceptibility obtained from expert interviews, land use maps obtained from analysis of Landsat 8 OLI satellite imagery in 2020, slope maps, rainfall maps, forest area status maps, and map type. soil. The method used is the integration of AHP and MCE for landslide hazard assessment, GIS analysis and spatial decision-making for scenario simulation. The results of the analysis show that the rainfall parameter has the highest weight in determining the level of landslide susceptibility with a value of 0.327, the results of the MCE analysis for assessing the level of landslide susceptibility in the Jeneberang watershed show an area of 18.829 ha. or 18% of the Jeneberang watershed area which is classified as high hazard. The results of the analysis show that the use of an effective scenario reduces the landslide hazard at a high level of hazard. In the optimistic scenario, it can reduce the high vulnerability level by 9.14%, while in the moderate scenario it is effective in reducing the high vulnerability level by 8.72%.

The Critical Level Mapping of the Infiltration Area in the Northern Part of Banyumanik District, Semarang City, Central Java, Indonesia

This research was conducted in Semarang City, in the northern part of Banyumanik District, including six sub-districts: Srondol Wetan, Srondol Kulon, Sumurboto, Pedalangan, Tinjomoyo, and Ngesrep, to map the critical condition of infiltration zone in the research area. This research aims to map the critical level of the infiltration area in the research area that can be used as a reference in policymaking regarding groundwater conservation and disaster mitigation in the research area. The primary data used were soil and rock samples, with secondary data such as regional geological maps, land use maps, slope maps, and soil permeability maps used to support the primary data obtained in the field. The data were then processed using the AHP (Analytical Hierarchy Process) method with parameters such as soil grain size, soil permeability, land use, lithology, slope, and density of geological structures. Based on the calculations, the research area could be divided into criticality classes of infiltration: Very Critical, Critical, Moderately Critical, Starting to be Critical, Naturally Normal, and Good.

IDENTIFIKASI TINGKAT KERAWANAN TANAH LONGSOR DI AJIBARANG BANYUMAS MENGGUNAKAN METODE SKORING

Landslide is a form of natural phenomenon that often occurs in mountainous and hilly regions with steep up to very steep slopes. Landslide is the movement of slope-forming materials in the form of rocks, debris, soil or materials down the slope. This study aimed to identify the distribution of landslide-prone areas in Ajibarang, Banyumas Regency. The research was conducted by survey method. The model used to determine landslide-prone areas was the Stories Index Model approach. Analysis of geophysical factors was based on SPOT-5 image data and the Indonesia Topographical Map (RBI Map). Identification of land geophysical factors for susceptibility level was determined according to geological map, slope map, soil type map and land use map. The results showed that the level of landslide susceptibility in the study area was divided into 4 classes, namely very low (3.733,41 ha), low (3.303,73 ha), moderate (123,49 ha) and high (150,37 ha).

Land suitability analysis and direction for plantation commodities development in Pekalongan Regency, Central Java

The plantation is one of the essential sub-sectors and encourages economic growth in Pekalongan Regency with the contribution of the 2020 Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP) of 17.01%. Our previous studies indicate that the leading plantation commodities in Pekalongan Regency are tea, coffee, cloves, sugarcane, and coconut. This study aims to analyze the land availability and land suitability to arrange the direction for leading plantation commodities development in Pekalongan Regency. The methods used in this study are land availability and land suitability analysis, as well as an overlay method using several data/maps such as soil, rainfall, slope, land use, forest area, and spatial planning maps (RTRW). The results showed that the available land for the development of plantation commodities is 47,782.55 ha. Based on land suitability analysis results on leading plantation commodities, there are three categories of land suitability classes, which are S1 (highly suitable), S2 (moderately suitable), and S3 (marginally suitable), with different spatial distributions for each commodity. The directions for developing leading plantation commodities in Pekalongan Regency are (1) tea in Paninggaran Sub-district; (2) coffee in Lebakbarang Sub-district; (3) cloves in 3 sub-districts, namely Kandangserang, Talun, and Doro; (4) coconut in 6 sub-districts, namely Sragi, Siwalan, Bojong, Buaran, Tirto, and Wonokerto; and (5) sugarcane in the Sub-districts of Karanganyar, Kajen, Kesesi, Wonopringgo, Karangdadap, and Kedungwuni. From the study, it can be seen that five leading plantation commodities are suitable for cultivation in Pekalongan Regency. Following the direction of leading plantation commodities development, it is expected to increase the productivity and economic welfare of the local community.

Role of Geographic Information Systems in analysing the selection of cichociemni drop zones based on a case study of the “Mewa 1” drop zone

Abstract The article discusses the possible use of GIS tools in detailed spatial analysis of materials and old maps showing the activities of Polish soldiers during World War II. The research was based on information regarding the military operations of the “Silent and Unseen” paratroopers (in Polish: cichociemni) in the General Government (GG), available in the archives of the Polish Underground Movement Study Trust (in Polish: Studium Polski Podziemnej) in London, as well as on prewar maps of the Polish Military Geographical Institute (in Polish: Wojskowy Instytut Geograficzny – WIG). The authors present the historical background to, and important details of the cichociemni airdrops. They also describe how these operations were organised and suitable airdrop sites selected. The main part of the article is devoted to an analysis and assessment of the extent to which selected drop sites of the cichociemni complied with the criteria contained in the instructions of the Staff of the Commander-in-Chief in London (in Polish: Sztab Naczelnego Wodza w Londynie). The article presents a case study of the “Mewa 1” drop zone located in the GG. The authors used calibrated WIG maps, which they then converted into vector versions. They also made use of modern DTM and a slope map created on its basis. All the criteria for selecting drop zones included in the historical instructions were analysed. Based on the example of the drop zone in question, as well as on the authors’ own spatial analyses, it was concluded that this particular drop zone met some of the criteria formulated in the guidelines of the Commander-in-Chief’s Staff, but only partially met others or failed to meet them at all. In addition, the authors noted a number of limitations regarding these criteria. For example, they did not take into account the locations of the occupiers’ garrisons or anti-aircraft positions, which are particularly important for the success of airdrop operations. The analyses and the results thereof constitute the first study of the armed operations of the cichociemni in GG areas using digital maps and spatial analyses based on GIS.

A Novel Three-Dimensional Block Adjustment Method for Spaceborne InSAR-DEM Based on General Models

Digital Elevation Model (DEM) generated by bistatic Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry (InSAR) usually has systematic plane and elevation errors. However, the DEM adjustment method based on the function model can only correct systematic elevation error, affecting the plane accuracy of DEM mosaic products. Given this issue, this paper proposes a three-dimensional InSAR-DEM block adjustment method based on general models with a separate adjustment strategy, that is, first correct vertical error using the adjustment method based on the function model and then correct horizontal error using the method based on Rational Function Model (RFM) after compensating for elevation errors. In order to extract the Tie Points (TPs) and Ground Control Points (GCPs) used in adjustment, we propose a Normalized Correlation Coefficient matching method based on Complex Slope Maps (NCC-CSM). We conduct experiments using 29 TanDEM-X Co-registered Single look Slant range Complex (CoSSC) data. The accuracies of adjustment results are verified using ICESat-2 ATL08 data and selected GCPs, respectively. The adjustment experiments show that the elevation accuracy of InSAR-DEM is improved from 1.70 m to 1.35 m, the absolute and relative plane accuracies are improved by 5.58 m and 11.53 m, respectively, and the horizontal and vertical geometric discontinuity in the overlapping area disappear. The matching experiments of TPs and GCPs show that the proposed NCC-CSM method is superior to the traditional NCC method based on DEM (NCC-DEM), especially in flat areas.

Erosion of Coastal Slope in the Zelenka locality, Northern Black Sea Coast of Bulgaria

The study covers a coastal slope along the northern Bulgarian Black Sea coast near Cape Kaliakra, Zelenka locality. The slope is composed of Miocene (Sarmatian), unconsolidated aragonite sediments with limestone interbeds (Topola Formation) and a steep limestone rock ridge (Karvuna Formation). Water flows along the surface of the slope, attached to the karstified and cracked limestones of the two formations. An assessment was made of the material eroded from the slope, composed of aragonite sediments of the Topola Formation, for the period from September 2018 to October 2022. The quantities of this material were measured and laboratory tests of the aragonite sediments were carried out. Their classification characteristics have been determined - grain size composition and plasticity index. Geotechnical studies and mapping of the coastal slope showed that erosion processes in the studied area represent a real geological hazard and can affect the stability of the slope, as well as the integrity of the road.

Soil Damage Potential Index Based on Weighting Scoring Analysis and Utilization of Geographical Information Systems

Indonesia's population in 2021 will increase by 0.92% from 2020. The increasing population demands the fulfillment of food. Land changes and their consequences indicate land damage. The purpose of the study was to assess the soil damage potential index (SDPI) on the slopes of Mount Argopura through terrain analysis and the use of geographic information system technology. The research was carried out on the slopes of Mount Argopura in 2022. The tools used included a clinometer, a GPS, spectrophotometer, AAS, arc GIS 13 and minitab. The materials included administrative maps, soil maps, slope maps, RBI maps, land use maps, rainfall maps. This research is descriptive exploratory with field survey method. The activity is divided into 3 stages, namely pre-survey, field survey, and post-survey. Research parameters include texture, soil thickness, soil type, soil pH, CEC, base saturation, soil drainage, parent material, landform, relief, rainfall, and land use. Based on the results of the study, the SDPI with an area of 22,148.75 ha was in the heavy category 44.12% (9772.28 ha), the medium category was 53.11% (11762.84 ha), and the light category was 2.77% (613.63 ha). Keywords: Geographic Information System, Land Degradation, Mount Argopura, Soil Damage

Land Conservation and The Potential Goal for Food Security in Urban City

Population growth and increasing demand for land for urban development have led to the conversion of agricultural land. Land conversion harms the reduction of agricultural areas and indirectly affects food availability, so efforts are needed to preserve it. The study aims to obtain the availability of paddy fields and the conservation strategies. Evaluation of land use change and availability was analyzed by high-resolution SPOT 6/7 satellite imagery data, slope maps, soil type maps, sub-district administrative boundaries maps, raw rice field maps, spatial pattern planning maps, climate data, and criteria for land suitability for food crops. The strategy of conservation of paddy fields based on the wisdom of Subak (Balinese cultural base irrigation system for paddy fields) was analyzed by SWOT. The analysis showed that the converted land areas were 78.5 Ha. The available paddy fields that needed to be conserved were 895.02 Ha, consisting of a moderate suitability class of 556.74 Ha and a very suitable suitability level of 338.28 Ha. The strategy for conservation of paddy fields based on Subak wisdom must be implemented through 1) Developing tourist attractions based on Subak agricultural activities and rituals, 2) Developing a network of cooperation with the government and business people, 3) Implementing strict Subak rules (awig-awig), 4) Encouraging Subak to be more business-oriented through plant diversification that has market prospects.

A Study the Relationship of Soil Quality with Land Suitability for Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) Development in Kebonagung Sub-district, Pacitan District

This study aims to assess the soil quality index (SQI) under the shade of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) and its relationship to land suitability to provide recommendations for improvement to increase coconut productivity. This research conducted in Kebonagung District, Pacitan District using descriptive survey method. Land Map Units (LMU) are determined by overlaying soil type, land use, slope, and rainfall maps. Determination of survey using purposive sampling with 10 sample and three replications. The samples were analyzed in the laboratory with analysis method Bulk Density (Pycnometer), Porosity (Sample ring), Textures (Pipet), pH (Electrometric), Available P (Olsen method), Available K (NH4Oac 1 N extraction), Kjeldahl (Total N), Base saturation (Ammonium acetate extraction), SOC (Walkey and Black), CEC (Ammonium acetate method). Soil quality assessment was carried out using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to obtain Minimum Data Sets (MDS). Land suitability was evaluated through the matching method with the conditions for growing coconut plants. The analysis showed that the soil quality index had a significant positive correlation with land suitability (r=0.768, p=0.004). The limiting indicators based on the correlation test were BV, pH, available P, organic C, and CEC. Suggested improvement recommendations include applying land cover crops, dolomite, manure, and balanced P fertilization.

Study the Relationship of Soil Fertility with Land Suitability For Arabica Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) Development in Bandar Sub-district, Pacitan District

This study aims to assess the soil fertility index (SFI) under the shade of coffee and its relationship with land suitability to provide recommendations for improving arabica coffee productivity. This research was conducted in Bandar Sub-district, Pacitan District, East Java, using an exploratory, descriptive survey method. Land Map Units (LMU) are determined by overlaying soil type, land use, slope, and rainfall maps. Determination of survey points using purposive sampling with 10 sample points and three replications. The samples were analyzed in the laboratory to determine the soil’s physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Soil quality assessment was carried out using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to obtain Minimum Data Sets (MDS). Land suitability was evaluated through the matching method with the conditions for growing arabica coffee. The analysis showed that the soil fetility index had a significant positive correlation with land suitability (r=0.806, p=0.002). The limiting indicators based on the correlation test were SOC, pH, available P, and Base Saturation. Suggested improvement recommendations include applying land cover crops and balanced P fertilization.

Paleogeography of the lower Taravu Valley during Late Holocene (SW Corsica)

The Taravu valley, located in the south-west of Corsica, is one of the most extensive watersheds on the island. Recent paleoenvironmental studies allowed to restitute the chronostratigraphy of the two ponds in the lower valley. However, the paleogeographic evolution of this sector still remains largely to be specified. In order to reconstruct the transformations of the landscape of the lower Taravu valley during the Late Holocene (2250 BCE), we have developed an innovative interdisciplinary approach combining the methods of historical geography (ancient maps and aerial photographs), geoprocessing of topographic data (slope map and drainage map) that we associated with the results of an electromagnetic survey (EMI) and previous stratigraphic data. This synthesis enables the creation of a geomorphological map of the lower Taravu valley, to identify several major landscape changes since the Neolithic period (5800-3000 BCE), and to follow the evolution of the alluvial forms of the Taravu and the shore line since the end of the 18th c. CE.

Road Network Planning in Tropical Forests Using GIS

This study intended to develop a road network planning for timber harvesting in tropical forests in Peru using georeferenced and field data and Geographic Information System (GIS). The Digital Elevation Model (DEM) Alos Palsar 12.5 m was used. The DEM was processed to generate the hydrography and terrain slope maps. A weighted raster was created using overlapping weights of the slope raster and the hydrography map. We created a least cost path raster by using the weighted raster origin and destination points. We used a Triangular Irregular Network (TIN) to validate the Least Cost Path. In addition, histograms of the trajectory of each path with altitude and slope values ​​ were generated. We observed that the forest road planning using GIS provided better definition (economically and environmentally) of road networks in our forest site than those traditionally defined using conventional mapping techniques.