Production Of Alloys Research Articles

Electrochemical characteristic and microstructure of Ti-6Al-7Nb alloy by centrifugal casting for orthopedic implant based on ageing time variations

The alternative Ti-6Al-7Nb alloy has gained extensive progression due to its ability to eliminate the cytotoxicity of vanadium (V) in Ti-6Al-4V alloy for orthopedic implants. The production of titanium alloys by centrifugal casting shows significant potential to reduce costs. Heat treatment and aging can tailor the microstructure and improve the corrosion resistance of titanium alloys. This study examines the effects of various ageing times on the microstructure and corrosion resistance of a centrifugal cast Ti-6Al-7Nb alloy that has previously been heated and treated at a temperature of 1050 °C, and subsequently cooled to room temperature in argon atmosphere gas. Ageing was carried out at a temperature of 550 °C with variable times of 0, 4, 6, and 8 hours. The surface morphology, metal phase changes, and electrochemical characterization were tested using an optical microscope (OM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), potentiodynamic polarization (PDP), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The basket-weave microstructure is formed where globularization occurs in some phases as ageing time increases. Increasing the FWHM α value is correlated with increasing the amount of α' martensite phase. As an ageing time enhances, the temperature might offer a greater driving constrain for the nucleation and expansion of the lamellar phase (α). Ageing of 8 hours has the lowest corrosion rate, 0.0023 mpy and highest corrosion resistance, 90457 Ω∙cm2, due to the partially bimodal structure and grain refinement with a smallest grain size of 327.87 µm. Tafel polarization results show that all passivated samples are stable in the Solution Body Fluid (SBF). This work can be used as a starting point for developing microstructural evolution in titanium alloys

Progress and Challenges of Additive Manufacturing of Tungsten and Alloys as Plasma-Facing Materials.

Tungsten (W) and W alloys are considered as primary candidates for plasma-facing components (PFCs) that must perform in severe environments in terms of temperature, neutron fluxes, plasma effects, and irradiation bombardment. These materials are notoriously difficult to produce using additive manufacturing (AM) methods due to issues inherent to these techniques. The progress on applying AM techniques to W-based PFC applications is reviewed and the technical issues in selected manufacturing methods are discussed in this review. Specifically, we focus on the recent development and applications of laser powder bed fusion (LPBF), electron beam melting (EBM), and direct energy deposition (DED) in W materials due to their abilities to preserve the properties of W as potential PFCs. Additionally, the existing literature on irradiation effects on W and W alloys is surveyed, with possible solutions to those issues therein addressed. Finally, the gaps in possible future research on additively manufactured W are identified and outlined.

Advancing structure − property homogeneity in forged Alloy 718 engine disks: A pathway towards enhanced performance

Alloy 718 is widely used in critical temperature components of modern aircraft engines and gas turbines. However, its industrial-scale forging faces challenges around heterogeneous microstructures and properties in the final product. This has been attributed to inherent heterogeneous microstructures of the billet starting materials and/or the heterogeneous nature of deformation during hot forging itself, leading to heterogeneities and inferior mechanical performance during service.To overcome these challenges, a three-step TMP approach, denoted simply as TMP3, is introduced to unlock effective microstructure and homogeneity control, irrespective of the given billet microstructure. Using electron and atom probe microscopy, the through-process microstructure evolution is revealed, highlighting dependencies of homogeneity and superior properties on various dynamic recrystallization mechanisms and the δ-phase dissolution. The process affects the dislocation density, δ-phase characteristics, and solute distribution in the matrix γ-phase. This facilitates Nb redistribution, resulting in fractions and morphologies of γʹ and γ“ Co-precipitates during subsequent direct ageing. The final samples have a hardness of ∼ 500 HV, a ∼ 5 % improvement over previous methods, providing a reliable proxy for high-temperature yield strength, independent of the billet position. Our TMP3 approach can be scaled-up and will enable manufacturing of high-performance Alloy 718 parts ready for next generation aircraft engines.

Characteristic variations in a pulsed‐anodized NiTi alloy surface by the lower voltage setting

Pulsed anodization of a nearly equiatomic NiTi alloy in HNO3 leads to the formation of a nearly Ni‐free oxide layer, resulting in the suppression of Ni‐ion release from the alloy surface. The core technology involves introduction of a lower‐voltage period, which promostes chemical reactions between the alloy and electrolyte, to obtain a surface layer with better corrosion protection. In this study, a higher voltage of 3.5 V was applied, and the lower voltage was varied within 0–3.5 V. As the lower voltage was increased, nanometer‐sized pores present on the anodized surface gradually expanded, while the layer thickness decreased. Although the corrosion protectivity of the layer did not change significantly during the electrochemical experiments, the amount of Ni‐ion released into the physiological solution significantly decreased when the voltage was below 1.8 V. X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy analyses revealed the presence of Ni (OH)2 on the topmost surface, and its concentration decreased at a voltage <1.8 V. Lower voltages affected the concentration of Ni (OH)2 on the topmost surface and thus considerably influenced the Ni‐ion release behavior. These findings will contribute to the production of NiTi alloys with improved biocompatibility.

Research on Fe Removal, Regeneration Process, and Mechanical Properties of Mg Alloy AM50A

In recent years, the widespread application of Mg alloy casting and Mg alloy products has generated a large amount of Mg alloy waste. This experiment used a single factor experimental analysis method to study the optimal process for removing Fe from Mg alloy AM50A waste, and developed an efficient Fe removal and regeneration process for Mg alloy AM50A. It was found that the optimal refining temperature for removing Fe ions was 670 °C, the optimal refining (RJ-2) agent mass ratio was 1.5%, and the optimal refining time was 40 min. Regenerated J40-1.5-AM50A Mg alloy was prepared using the best refining process, and its composition and mechanical properties were tested and analyzed. The experimental results show that the composition of the regenerated J40-1.5-AM50A Mg alloy prepared by this method is consistent with AM50A, with an Fe removal rate of 96.2%. The mechanical properties were improved compared to the original AM50A sample, with a maximum tensile strength increase of 1.611 KN and a tensile strength increase of 26.333 MPa. The elongation after fracture is 2.25 times that of the original sample. Research has shown that the RJ-2 refining agent can provide mechanical properties of magnesium alloys during the refining process. By analyzing the composition, XRD, SEM, and EDS of AM50A (Fe) and J40-1.5-AM50A, it was found that the refining process accelerates the removal of Fe in the form of Fe deposition.

Aging heat treatment design for Haynes 282 made by wire-feed additive manufacturing using high-throughput experiments and interpretable machine learning

ABSTRACT Wire-feed additive manufacturing (WFAM) produces superalloys with complex thermal cycles and unique microstructures, often requiring optimized heat treatments. To address this challenge, we present a hybrid approach that combines high-throughput experiments, precipitation simulation, and machine learning to design effective aging conditions for the WFAM Haynes 282 superalloy. Our results demonstrate that the γ’ radius is the critical microstructural feature for strengthening Haynes 282 during post-heat treatment compared with the matrix composition and γ’ volume fraction. New aging conditions at 770°C for 50 hours and 730°C for 200 hours were discovered based on the machine learning model and were applied to enhance yield strength, bringing it on par with the wrought counterpart. This approach has significant implications for future AM alloy production, enabling more efficient and effective heat treatment design to achieve desired properties.

Structural correlation and chemistry of molten NaF–ScF3 with dissolved metal aluminium: TG/DTA, XRD, NMR and molecular dynamics simulations

For the first time, the mechanism of metal aluminum dissolution in NaF–ScF3 eutectic melts and the chemical interaction between the constituents of this mixture have been thoroughly studied by a combination of differential thermal analysis (DTA), high temperature and solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) coupled with the molecular dynamic simulations. The formation of an insoluble Al3Sc alloy in molten (NaF–ScF3)eut system was proven, and the chemical mechanism of this aluminothermic Al3Sc alloy production was elucidated. Corresponding ex situ examinations bring to light the formation of NaScF4 and solid solution of Na3(Al,Sc)F6 in cooled bath. The molecular dynamics calculations of the bath allow us to construct the structural model and to predict viscosity, density and electrical conductivity of the reagent melt to help to optimize the conditions of the alloy synthesis.Graphical abstract

A finite-element method model for a ferromanganese and silicomanganese pilot furnace

We report on the development of a finite-element method model for a pilot furnace for the production of manganese alloys. The model is a multiphysics model that addresses material flow, electrical conditions, heat transfer, and physical and chemical transformations. It is capable of studying both quasi-steady and transient states in time-dependent simulations. The model includes common charge materials and fluxes and can simulate production of both ferromanganese and silicomanganese alloys with acid and basic slags, as well as changing charge compositions. The model output provides access to the material distribution in the furnace during furnace runs, temperature profiles, current paths, energy balances, and alloy and slag production rates and compositions.

Synthesis of ultrathin hybrid membranes via the co-polymerization of acrylic acid, styrene and molybdenum disulfide and their high adsorption selectivity for lead(II) in the mixture of metal ions

Lead(II) is a potential carcinogen of heavy-metal ions (HIs). With the wide application of Pb-bearing products including lead alloy products, and new-energy lead-ion batteries, lead pollution has become a tricky problem. To solve such a difficulty, novel ultrathin MoS2-vinyl hybrid membranes (MVHMs) with a “spring” effect were synthesized via co-polymerization of acrylic acid, styrene and molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) and their adsorptions for HIs were explored. The “spring” effect derived from the interaction between the tendency of the short polyacrylic acid (PAA) chain connected with MoS2 to spread outward and the coulomb force between layers from MoS2 (s-MoS2), which enlarge the spacing of MoS2 layers without changing the number of layers after membrane formation, which changes the swelling membrane to a dense membrane and reduces the original thickness from 0.5 cm to 0.011 mm in the thickness direction. The adsorption experiment revealed that these MVHMs had super adsorption performance and high selectivity for Pb2+ by comparison with other five metal ions: Cu2+, Cd2+, Ni2+, Cr3+ and Zn2+. Especially, the adsorption quantity of MVHMs for Pb2+ could approach 2468 mg/g and the maximum adsorption ratio of qe[Pb2+]/qe[Cu2+] can reach 10.909. These values were much larger than the data obtained with the adsorbents reported in the last decade. A variety of models are applied to evaluate the effect of ionic groups. It was confirmed that –COOH plays a key role in adsorption of HIs and s-MoS2 also has a certain contribution. Conversely, ion exchange plays only a minor role during the period of adsorption process. Effective diffusion coefficient (Deff) of Pb(II) had the largest values among these metal ions. Hence, these hybrid membranes are promising adsorbents for the removal of Pb2+ from water containing various ions.

Fabrication and evaluation of high-entropy alloy reinforced Fe bond diamond tool

Metal-bond diamond tools find extensive use in the grinding of hard and brittle materials. The mechanical properties and wear resistance of the metal bond are crucial for the grinding performance and life of diamond tools. However, Fe bonds exhibit insufficient hardness, strength, and wear resistance, and existing reinforcement methods are difficult to simultaneously improve the self-sharpness and wear resistance of diamond tools, leading to a trade-off between grinding performance and life. In this paper, a novel AlCoCrFeNi HEA particles reinforced Fe (HEA/Fe) alloy was proposed as the bond for diamond tool to address the aforementioned issue. The work considers materials science fundamentals related to the element diffusion mechanism and particle reinforcement mechanism in the design of the HEA/Fe bond. Through the mutual element diffusion between the HEA and Fe matrix, expanded HEA regions are formed, which not only enhance the strength and overall wear resistance of the HEA/Fe bond but also generate a composite structure with varying hardness. The distinct mechanical properties of composite structure form wear-resistant and non-wear-resistant areas within the diamond tool, effectively balancing the challenging trade-off between wear resistance and self-sharpness. This allows HEA/Fe bond diamond tools to achieve both prolonged service life and high grinding performance. The results reveal that the HEA/Fe bond diamond tool exhibits a lower grinding force, a superior surface finish, and a nearly equivalent grinding ratio compared to the commercial Fe-based alloy bond diamond tool in grinding of sapphire.

Reactive Ti/Ni multilayer composites produced via accumulative roll-bonding (ARB): post-annealing treatment

ABSTRACT Ti/Ni multilayers, produced through the accumulative-roll bonding (ARB) process, serve as reactive multilayer, capturing energy to optimize manufacturing processes and contribute to TiNi (shape memory alloy) production. This research specifically examines the impact of the number of layers on microstructural and thermal properties after activation through heating. Energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), field emission scanning electronmicroscopy (FESEM), and differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) were employed to analyse samples subjected to various ARB cycles. The findings indicate that in low-cycle ARB processing, the interdiffusion of Ni and Ti under normal conditions initiates the production of a very thin layer of TiNi at 800 °C, requiring extended holding times for increased thickness. Conversely, the formation of intermetallic compounds, particularly TiNi, and diffusion in high-cycle ARB-processed composites are accelerated. According to the DSC results, complete activation and phase transformation, accompanied by the release of energy (43–50 kJ/mol), occur at approximately 500–525°C without the need for any holding time. Consequently, for achieving a uniform TiNi phase, heat treatment of high-cycle ARB-processed composites up to 800°C – a temperature surpassing the activation temperature – without any holding time can be effectively employed.

Wire-based electron beam additive manufacturing of NiTiNb shape memory alloy: Microstructure, phase-transformation behavior and mechanical properties

NiTiNb shape memory alloy (SMA) is considered to have great potential in aerospace due to its wide phase-transformation hysteresis. Here, we innovatively used electron-beam additive manufacturing (EBAM) to fabricate a NiTiNb SMA thin-walled structure. The phase-transformation temperature, microstructure evolution, and mechanical properties were investigated in detail. The as-built NiTiNb SMA comprised a NiTi matrix and different morphologies of β-Nb phase at room temperature. The microstructure homogeneity and mechanical properties of NiTiNb prepared by EBAM significantly improved compared with those of NiTiNb powder-based AM technology. Our work provided a promising method for the preparation of defect-free and microstructure homogeneous NiTiNb SMA by AM. This method further stimulated the potential of additively manufactured SMA components for industrial applications.

On the fabrication of finer grain structure through using finer wire diameter for wire arc additive manufacturing of AZ31B magnesium alloy

Magnesium (Mg) alloys are the lightest structural metallic material, but it is hard to be applied to various industrial fields due to the crystallographic nature that is composed with hexagonal closed packed (HCP). Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) could be a key to fabricating Mg parts with large sizes and complex designs. It has numerous advantages such as high material efficiency, short-delivery time by faster manufacturing speed, easy to modify, etc. Yet, most of the research mentioned the grain coarsening and degradation in mechanical properties when fabricating WAAM products using Mg alloy wires. To solve the problems, a solution was suggested with supposition that the lessen the deposit metal size a little by changing to the finer wire diameter can reduce the actual heat input and heat accumulation during the WAAM process. In this research, the WAAM of AZ31B has been conducted using a wire diameter of 1.0 mm rather using the 1.2 mm that is used in common. It was found that the finer (about 90 %) and equiaxed microstructure was composing the WAAM product made of wire diameter of 1.0 mm, and it results in about two times higher mechanical strength.

Enhanced strength-ductility synergy in a gradient pseudo-precipitates heterostructured Al-2.5%Mg alloy: Design, fabrication, and deformation mechanism

Heterostructures of alloyed composites, comprising heterogeneous domains with dramatically different constitutive properties, hold remarkable potential to expand the realm of material design systems and resolve the trade-off between strength and ductility. This study introduces an innovative materials design method for synthesizing gradient pseudo-precipitates heterostructure (GPHS) in non-heat-treatable Al-2.5%Mg alloys. Utilizing cost-effective mild steel as both the diffusion source and protective layer, this heterostructure is achieved through pin-less friction stir-assisted cyclic localized deformation process. Exogenous Fe atoms diffuse across the interface by friction stir-induced heat conduction, forming Fe-Al second-phase particles in the Al alloy matrix. A rapid inter-diffusion mechanism is activated in conjunction with dense dislocation walls, grain boundaries, and sub-structures, resulting in the formation of pseudo-precipitates. These pseudo-precipitates are ultimately dispersed in a gradient distribution throughout the entire thickness of the Al alloy matrix induced by localized incremental deformation. The GPHSed Al-2.5%Mg alloy exhibits an enhanced synergy of strength and ductility, with a uniform elongation increase from 11 % to 21.2 %, while maintaining the strength. Multiple strengthening and hardening mechanisms, such as solid solution strengthening, dislocation hardening, and second phase strengthening, work synergistically to promote mechanical performance. Notably, the hetero-deformation between hard pseudo-precipitates and soft Al alloy matrix induces additional strain hardening, leading to high ductility. This work provides a fresh perspective on the design and fabrication of high-performance alloys with advanced heterostructures, especially for non-heat-treatable alloys.

Optimized hydrogen storage properties of Ti–Zr–Mn–VFe-based alloys by orthogonal experiment for upscaled production

Ti–Mn-based hydrogen storage alloys have been widely developed for hydrogen compressors and storage because of their excellent hydrogen storage properties. However, there is still a need to develop a high-capacity hydrogen storage based on low-cost and large-scale preparation. Herein, cheap VFe80 intermetallic alloy is employed to replace the expensive V, and Ti–Zr–Mn–VFe-based alloys ((Ti1-yZry)1+xMn1.88-z(VFe)z, x = 0, 0.05, 0.1, y = 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, z = 0.34, 0.44, 0.54) with mainly C14 Laves phase structure were designed and prepared to optimize the composition by an orthogonal experiment. According to the orthogonal analysis, it is found that the maximum hydrogen storage capacity and hysteresis factor mainly are controlled by the content of VFe80 in the Ti–Zr–Mn–VFe-based alloys. The over-stoichiometry of A-side governs the plateau slope, and the content of Zr decreases hydrogen plateau pressure. The optimal Ti0.9Zr0.1Mn1.44(VFe)0.44 alloy achieves a revisable hydrogen storage capacity of 1.73 wt% with low plateau hysteresis factor (0.49) and plateau slope factor (0.73) at room temperature, the dehydrogenation enthalpy and entropy values respectively are 33.92 kJ/mol and 120.64 J/(mol∙K), which exhibits the best overall hydrogen storage properties. Furthermore, the optimal alloy was successfully produced on a large scale, which provides empirical value for upscaled production of AB2 Laves-phase hydrogen alloys.

LCA of recycling aluminium incineration bottom ash, dross and shavings in a rotary furnace and environmental benefits of salt-slag valorisation

Recycling aluminium in a rotary furnace with salt-fluxes allows recovering valuable alloys from hard-to-recycle waste/side-streams such as packaging, dross and incinerator bottom ash. However, this recycling route generates large amounts of salt-slag/salt-cake hazardous wastes which can pose critical environmental risks if landfilled. To tackle this issue, the metallurgical industry has developed processes to valorise the salt-slag residues into recyclable salts and aluminium concentrates, while producing by-products such as ammonium sulphate and non-metallic compounds (NMCs), with applications in the construction or chemical industries. This study aims to assess through LCA the environmental impacts of recycling aluminium in rotary furnaces for both salt-slag management routes: valorisation or landfill. It was found that this recycling process brings forth considerable net environmental profits, which increase for all the considered impact categories if the salt-slag is valorised. The main benefits arise from the production of secondary cast aluminium alloys, which is not unexpected due to the high energy intensity of aluminium primary production. However, the LCA results also identify other hotspots which play a significant role, and which should be considered for the optimisation of the process based on its environmental performance, such as the production of by-products, the consumption of energy/fuels and the avoidance of landfilling waste. Additionally, the assessment shows that the indicators for mineral resource scarcity, human carcinogenic toxicity and terrestrial ecotoxicity are particularly benefited by the salt-slag valorisation. Finally, a sensitivity analysis illustrates the criticality of the metal yield assumptions when calculating the global warming potential of aluminium recycling routes.

Strengthening mechanism and interaction between nano precipitates and defects in wrought Mg-5Li-1Zn-0.5Ag-0.5Zr-xGd alloys

Mg-5Li-1Zn-0.5Ag-0.5Zr-xGd (x = 2.4, 6) alloys were subjected to multi-directional forging (MDF). The β1 coherent phase and β incoherent phase precipitated during the MDF process significantly improve the properties of the alloy. The results show that the orientation relationship between the β1 phase and the matrix is 022β1∥0002α and 111β1∥12¯10α.When the dislocations cut through the β1 phase, the {111} 〈110〉 slip system of the β1 phases is activated, forming anti-phase boundaries (APBs) by directional motion in the <110> direction, which provides strengthening effects. The APB structure leads to the increase of system energy, deformation resistance, and yield strength. Besides, the activation of the β1 phases slip system makes the alloys exhibit satisfactory plasticity and toughness. After MDF at 350 °C, Mg-5Li-1Zn-0.5Ag-0.5Zr-2.4Gd alloy has a yield strength of 270 MPa, a tensile strength of 295 MPa, and an elongation of 12.7%, respectively. The results are beneficial for the design and manufacture of high-performance MgLi alloys.

Designing strong and ductile heterogeneous lamella-structured Mg alloy via diffusion bonding

Achieving superior strength-ductility synergy in Mg alloys is a critical issue for engineering applications. To address the trade-off between strength and ductility, the introduction of heterogeneous lamellar structures has recently proven be an effective strategy. In this study, we fabricated an AZ31/WE43/AZ31 alloy with heterogeneous lamellar structure using diffusion bonding (DB). Increasing the DB temperature enhanced the diffusion behavior, resulting in the precipitation and growth of Al2(Y, Nd) phases within the interfacial diffusion zone. Additionally, grain growth occurred, leading to a reduction in the heterogeneity of the grain size in individual AZ31 and WE43 layers. The sample fabricated at 460 °C, which exhibited relatively high heterogeneity and strong interfacial bonding, demonstrated a good combination of yield strength (202.4 MPa), ultimate tensile strength (315.8 MPa), and elongation (19.4 %). These mechanical properties significantly surpassed those of the original individual materials and exceeded the rule-of-mixture predictions. The excellent strength-ductility synergy observed in this alloy can be attributed to the presence of heterogeneous deformation-induced stress (HDI stress), which promotes extensive activation of non-basal dislocation slips. Furthermore, in-situ tensile tests demonstrated that the pile-up of geometrically necessary dislocations (GNDs) at the heterogeneous interface contributed to the superior HDI strengthening and HDI strain hardening. Overall, this study provides new insights into the fabrication of heterogeneous lamella-structured Mg alloys with strength-ductility synergy.

Texture tailored through combination of molten pool morphology and scanning path in laser additive manufacturing of alloy 718

Texture control is vital for the performance improvement of laser additive manufacturing parts. In the current manuscript, the effect of molten pool morphology and scanning path on texture have been studied for Inconel 718 sample fabricated by directed energy deposition (DED). The molten pool formed at a pulse period of 20 ms is shallower than that formed at a pulse period of 100 ms. The V-shaped grains (<110> // BD) are generated in the overlapping area for all samples. While Z-type grains (<110> // SD) are generated in the molten pool center for the sample with bidirectional scanning path at a pulse period of 20 ms. The unique texture with V-shaped grains (<110> // BD) in the overlapping area and Z-type grains (<110> // SD) in the molten pool center was firstly observed in the current manuscript. The value of Taylor factor of Z-type grains (<110> // SD) is larger than that of V-shaped grains (<110> // BD). Meanwhile, the effect of different heat treatments on the texture evolution was analyzed. This research provides a promising approach for texture customization, which can also increase the understanding of texture evolution.

Machining performance of micro-pit and micro-groove composite textured tools in tungsten alloy turning

Tungsten alloys are widely used in aerospace because of their high-temperature resistance, corrosion resistance, high strength, and other excellent comprehensive properties. But tungsten alloys are typical hard-to-machining materials. Surface micro-textures can improve friction properties, such as preparing micro-textures on the surface of cutting tools for tungsten alloys, which is expected to enhance the cutting performance of tungsten alloys. Still, the relevant cutting laws need to be further studied. A combination texture of micro-pit and micro-groove was designed, and the micro-textured tool surface was prepared by laser machining. Compared with non-textured tools, micro-pit and micro-groove composite textured tools can effectively improve the processing quality of tungsten alloys. It happened because textures on the tool’s surfaces enhance machining performance by reducing the actual contact area between the tool and the chip and storing lubrication medium. At the same time, comparative experiments of micro-textured tools and non-textured tools were carried out. The results showed that when cutting W93NiFe alloys with textured and non-textured tools, the maximum reduction in resultant cutting forces with textured tools was 9%. The maximum reduction in surface roughness was 39.3%, the surface burr height of the tungsten alloy workpiece was lower, the number of surface grooves was lesser, and the surface was more flat. The research results are significant in achieving the efficient processing and high-quality manufacturing of tungsten alloys.