Production Of Tiles Research Articles

Automated Defective Ceramic Tiles Classification using Image Processing Techniques

Surface quality is one of the critical issues in the ceramic tile manufacturing industry. However, there are still large amounts of ceramic tiles manufacturers who use a manual inspection process to check the quality of the ceramic tiles’ surfaces. The manual inspection is time-consuming and has low accuracy. Additionally, the slow inspection process could not keep up with the production rate. Therefore, this study presents a solution where image processing techniques are implemented to construct an automated defective ceramic tiles classification. The process consists of a few phases which include image enhancement, image segmentation, feature extraction, and classification. The input image which is the ceramic tiles image was enhanced using the histogram equalization technique. The segmentation was done using Sobel and the global thresholding technique before the feature extraction process is implemented. Three shape features of mean intensity, area, and perimeter were extracted in analyzing the characteristics of each ceramic tile defect type of crack, corner, and edge. Then, the image was classified using the K-Nearest Neighbor (k-NN) technique. A confusion matrix was used to assess the performance of the k-NN classification to 150 testing images. The overall mean accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity returned good performance at 93.34%, 89.93%, and 95% respectively. Thus, it can be inferred that the proposed automated defective ceramic tiles classification using image processing techniques was successful.

Pumice and lapillus scraps: New national environmental-friendly chance for the production of ceramic tiles

Italian pumice and volcanic lapillus scraps have been used in different percentages as alternative raw materials to foreign feldspars in porcelain stoneware mixtures. The aim of this work was to create naturally colored support to limit the use of artificial dyes while maintaining the technical properties of the reference product. For this purpose, the significant presence of chromophores (Fe and Ti in particular) in by-products from extraction of Italian volcanic pumice and lapillus was exploited. The work was carried out in collaboration with a company: the products were made on a laboratory scale and then they were glazed and fired within the industrial production cycle (48 min, 1210 °C).The resulting slip and the fired samples were characterized by measuring the efflux time, density, linear shrinkage, water absorption and tensile strength to evaluate the technological performance. In addition, thermogravimetric analysis (TG), differential thermal analysis (DTA), and optical and mechanical dilatometry were performed to study the thermal behavior of the formulations.The obtained products could be classified as porcelain stoneware and belong to the BIa group (WA 0.5%, B.S.>35 MPa) in accordance with UNI EN 14411 ISO 13006.

Recycling insight into the ceramic tile manufacturing industry

The ceramic tile industry is one of the most important industrial sectors in Italy, with almost 90% of the whole production located in the Emilia-Romagna region. In this paper, the waste management and recycling practices in force among Italian ceramic tile manufacturers are reported and discussed on the basis of performance indicators determined thanks to the elaboration of a large amount of industrial data collected in the period 2013–2020. In particular, parameters such as annual water consumption (Cw) and demand (Dw), recycling factor of solid waste (Rsw) and water (Rw) and different kinds of waste generated in the process have been monitored for three different production layouts. Such indicators exhibit that recycling is a well-established practice in Italian ceramic tile production and only a minor amount of hazardous waste (exhausted lime) is land-filled.

Sustainable ceramic tiles incorporated with waste fly ash from recycled paper production

Waste incineration is an effective solid waste disposal method; however, its by-product pollutants hinder its widespread adoption. This research aims to develop novel unglazed ceramic tiles by recycling industrial solid waste incineration fly ash (IWA) from recycled paper mills. Experimental investigations were conducted on ceramic tiles with IWA additions (0–30 wt%) and firing temperatures (1100 °C, 1200 °C, and 1300 °C). Various scientific tests, including XRF, XRD, strength, water absorption, thermal properties, heavy metal leaching, SEM analysis, and micro-CT analysis, were performed. The results suggest that the addition of IWA may deteriorate the technical performance of ceramic tiles; however, satisfactory performance can still be achieved by tailoring the firing temperature due to the existence of iron and calcium in the IWA, which narrows and displaces the densification temperature range. Remarkably, tiles with 30 wt% IWA, which completely replaced the flux materials and fired at 1300 °C, achieved the highest flexural strength (exceeding 30 MPa). These tiles exhibited promising attributes such as water absorption of 5.9%, an estimated energy saving of 33.86%, and compliance with heavy metal leaching limits. This study proposes a sustainable solution for IWA disposal by utilising recycled paper mill fly ash as a substitute for flux material in ceramic tile manufacturing. The findings contribute to minimising environmental impact and conserving non-renewable natural resources, supporting sustainable development.

Fiber-Reinforced Alkali-Activated Cements from Ceramic Waste and Ladle Furnace Slag without Thermal Curing

Alkaline-activated cement, as an alternative to conventional portland cement, is being increasingly studied due to its environmental advantages and engineering properties. However, research on the feasibility of using both uncommon precursors and curing at ambient temperature is still limited. This study aims to investigate the potential of ceramic wastes, specifically from brick and tile production and ladle furnace slag, as precursors in alkaline activated cement reinforced with polyacrylonitrile fibers cured at 20°C. Sodium silicate, in solution form, was used to activate the precursors, and three different fiber contents were tested, namely 0%, 0.5%, and 1%, by volume. Physical properties, such as capillarity and porosity, were assessed. Moreover, the mechanical behavior was thoroughly characterized by uniaxial compressive, flexural, and elasticity modulus tests. In addition, a thorough microstructural characterization, including scanning electron microscopy, X-ray energy dispersive analyzer, X-ray diffraction, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was conducted at 14, 28, and 90 days. The results revealed that environmentally friendly alkali-activated binders were produced from wastes with limited industrial recycling possibilities. The mixture with 0.5% fibers was the one that presented better results, i.e., a flexural strength of 8.84 N/mm2 and compressive strength of ∼29 MPa at 90 days. The mechanical performance of this material is relevant, especially considering that a relatively low curing temperature was applied. The results also showed that calcium aluminum silicate hydrate (C-A-S-H) was detected as the main reaction product.Practical ApplicationsAlkali-activated cement has been identified as a potential alternative to traditional portland cement due to advantages such as the reduction of CO2 emissions to the atmosphere, and the conservation of natural resources, because wastes can be transformed into useful products. All over the world, ceramic materials are widely used in different types of construction, and significant amount (between 30% and 45%), end up as waste. Therefore, this study aims to show the possibility of reusing ceramic waste for the development of a fiber-reinforced alkaline activated cement composite with acceptable physical and mechanical properties that allow it to be used in non-structural applications; for example, bricks, tiles, partition walls, and other building materials. It also is a low-energy consumption process, because curing can be done at ambient temperatures. Finally, the obtained results, e.g., flexural strength of 8.84 N/mm2 and compressive strength of 29 MPa, open the door for several applications in the construction industry.

Utilization of Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate (EVA) Waste from Footwear Industry as Partial Replacement of Aggregates for Concrete Roof Tile

Scraps of Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate (EVA) foams from cutting out shoe soles are a waste produced by the footwear industry, and the recycling of these thermosetting materials is quite expensive and requires distinct procedures. Hence, an upcycling route to turn such waste into valuable material, such as utilizing it as a partial aggregate replacement in the production of concrete roof tile, was explored. This paper aims to investigate the effects of EVA on the bulk density, water absorption, thermal properties, water permeability, and transverse breaking strength of the concrete roof tile. The weight percentages of replaced natural aggregates in the concrete roof tile mixture are 5%, 7.5%, and 10%. The concrete roof tile with EVA aggregates demonstrated a lighter weight but higher water absorption. Also, its thermal conductivity presents promising results as it lessens the heat transfer compared to conventional concrete roof tiles. Moreover, the incorporation of EVA also positively affects the concrete roof tile's water permeability as it can hold the water longer than those without EVA. Finally, the transverse breaking strength of the concrete roof tiles with EVA contents resulted little or no difference compared to the conventional concrete roof tile.

Evaluation of the Geotechnical Properties of Cubitermes sp and Macrotermes sp Termite Mound Soils for the Manufacture of Earth Bricks

The use of local materials in construction contributes to solving the deficit of sustainable housing in some developing countries. Earth constructions have a low ecological impact and are among the cheapest, especially in rural areas. The durability of earthen buildings depends on the geotechnical properties of the soil used and the respect of basic architectural rules. Evaluation of the geotechnical properties of soils contributes to the choice of the appropriate technique to use them. The macrotermes sp and cubitermes sp termite mound soils are widespread and commonly used in construction in some regions of the world. The results obtained from the 27 samples showed that the clay content of some soils is higher than the maximum permitted of 30% and that other soils have a sand content lower than the minimum of 30% permitted by most standards for the manufacture of mud bricks. Some soils have good molding properties and a plasticity suitable for making mud bricks. To correct excess clay and limit the risk of cracking during drying, lime, plant fibers or sand could be incorporated into these soils. The cubitermes sp termite mound soils are composed of kaolinite and illite and the macrotermes sp termite mound soils of kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite. Soils containing kaolinite or illite are suitable for the manufacture of CEB, adobes, rammed earth and in the manufacture of tiles or pottery.

Prospecting and characterization of plastic clays from the state of São Paulo, Brazil, as raw materials for porcelain stoneware tile production

Abstract The present work aims to prospect and study the plastic and superplastic clay deposits in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, as a source of raw materials for the ceramic tile industry and especially for the production of porcelain stoneware tiles. To achieve the proposed objectives, a geological study was carried out through the mapping and identification of the present lithologies, lithogeochemical characterization using X-ray diffraction, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry, cation-exchange capacity and organic carbon and characterization of the ceramic technological properties, including granulometric analysis by sedigraph and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller specific surface area. According to their geological characteristics, the studied deposits were classified into two types: a detrital sedimentary deposit, restricted to Quaternary alluvial sediments and Neogenic Tertiary formations and composed of silt-sandy clay and plastic, kaolinitic, refractory and silico-aluminous facies; and an alterite type, found in Permo-Carboniferous rocks of the Paraná Basin, composed of laminated/massive weathering siltstones, with the highly plastic, fluxing clay minerals illite, kaolinite and smectites. Among the targets studied in these deposits, argillaceous facies with plastic and superplastic characteristics were identified, which affect their applicability in compositions for producing porcelain stoneware tiles and stoneware.

AMS, HISTORICAL, AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATING OF OPONICE CASTLE

ABSTRACT The fifth season of excavations of Oponice Castle in 2020 was located in the lower castle’s courtyard. The research led to discovery of an original clay floor being heavily burned with charred plank and a rectangular stone-brick construction. The construction has collapsed upper part with a fallen low brick arch. The whole area was covered with numerous stove tiles and one clay mold for the production of stove tiles. The construction was identified as a pottery kiln dated to the second half of the 16th until the first half of the 17th century AD by the findings from excavated layer identified to the kiln destruction. Also, written sources mention a large fire in 1645 which destroyed the castle. The aim of this article is to use different methods of dating and refine the chronology of the context through microarchaeology and Bayesian modeling. For these purposes different types of samples were collected. The sampling focused on site formation process determination of pottery kiln use and the way of its destruction. Applying Bayesian analysis improved overall dating, through modeled time interval of the three individual sequences and helped recreated historical events during the period, when the calibration curve fluctuates.

Ganos Aero: A Cloud-Native System for Big Raster Data Management and Processing

The development of Earth Observation technology contributes to the production of massive raster data. It is vital to manage and conduct analytical tasks on the raster data. Existing solutions employ dedicated systems for the raster data management and processing, respectively, incurring problems such as data redundancy, difficulty in updating, expensive data transferring and transformation, etc. To cope with these limitations, this demonstration presents Ganos Aero, a cloud-native system for big raster data management and processing. Ganos Aero proposes a unified raster data model for both the data management and processing, which stores a single copy of the raster data and without performing an expensive tiling procedure, and thus achieves significant improvement in the storage and updating efficiency. To enable efficient query and batch task processing, Ganos Aero implements an on-the-fly tile production mechanism, and optimizes its performance using the cloud features including decoupling compute from storage and pushing costly operations closer to the storage layer. Since deployed in Alibaba Cloud in 2022, Ganos Aero has been playing a critical role in many real applications including the modern agriculture, environment monitoring and protection, et al.

Optimal Tunnel Dryer Operating Strategies for the Production of Ceramic Roof Tiles under Tight Quality Considerations

Optimal Tunnel Dryer Operating Strategies for the Production of Ceramic Roof Tiles under Tight Quality Considerations

Structural and Mechanical Properties of Non-Glazed Ceramic Tiles Developed from Selected Mineral Deposits in Uganda

Uganda is well endowed with clay resources; however, comprehensive knowledge about the composition, structure and suitability of these clays for ceramic tile production is lacking. In this study, we provide a comprehensive characterisation of locally sourced clays in Uganda and their suitability for ceramic tile production. In the study, we developed ceramic tiles using feldspar, kaolin, ball clay and sand from four different sites in Uganda. We focused on analysing the surface morphology, crystallographic structure and mineralogical composition of the raw materials. In addition, we examined the mechanical properties of the developed tiles with the different mixture ratios of the clay types. The surface morphology of the raw materials was analysed by using a scanning electron microscope. The structural analysis of the raw clay materials was done using X-ray diffraction. The mineralogical composition of the raw materials was investigated using energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. The results indicated that the strength and rapture modulus are influenced by the composition of kaolin and feldspar. We concluded that the selected mineral deposits can be used in the production of ceramic tiles in Uganda.

Studying the use of thermomechanical treated sugarcane bagasse as partial replacement of quartz and feldspar in ceramic tiles production

AbstractSugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) is an industrial waste that consists of silicon oxides, calcium, aluminum, iron, magnesium, and alkali metal oxides. The composition and structure of thermomechanical treated SCBA was analyzed by X‐ray fluorescence (XRF), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and X‐Ray diffraction (XRD). Thermomechanical treated SCBA was mixed with clay, quartz and feldspar at different compositions according to an appropriate mixing ratio and using this mixture for the production of dry pressed ceramic tiles. The physic mechanical properties (surface quality, water absorption, modulus of rupture, linear thermal expansion and frost resistance) of the ceramic tiles were test according to ISO 13006:2018 and ISO 10545 standards. The results demonstrated that test ceramic have characteristics adequate for its use as ceramic tiles classified as BIII.

Investigation of the Usability of Reduced Alkalinity Red Mud in the Building Material Industry

Untreated and pH-reduced red mud is used as a potential raw material in ceramic technology. During the alkalinity reduction process, CO2 is bubbled through the untreated red mud, which is particularly important as it can reduce the CO2 content of the atmosphere, and the pH of the red mud. Therefore, this method serves as a CO2 capture technique that utilizes waste as a raw material with low costs. Besides, reducing CO2 emission, it allows the production of material suitable for brick manufacturing from waste. In this study, treated and reduced alkalinity red mud was mixed with clay in the range of 5–30 wt%, and the physical, chemical, mechanical, and technologically important properties of the dried and sintered bricks were examined. The application of reduced alkalinity red mud as an additive offers advantages, as the resulting bricks require less water for processing, are less sensitive to drying, and their strength values exceed those of the commercially available bricks. Therefore, the technique presented in the study enables the production of bricks and roof tiles with advantageous properties using waste materials.

Technological Analysis of Glazed Tiles Unearthed from Bao’ensi in Nanjing

To understand the firing technology and the level of production of glazed tiles in the Ming Dynasty, an ultraviolet-visible-near-infrared (UV-vis-NIR) spectrophotometer and an energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer were used to systematically analyze the glaze color and chemical composition of glazed tiles unearthed from the southern area of the Bao’ensi site. The results revealed that little difference exists in the main wavelengths of the same glazed tile samples, but that the colored elements of glaze with different colors are different. Iron (Fe) is the main element that affects the color of yellow glaze; copper (Cu) is the main element that affects the color of green glaze; and the main colorants that affect the color of black glaze are Fe, Cu, and manganese (Mn). The yellow and black glaze unearthed from the southern area of the Bao’ensi site were relatively mature in terms of raw material composition and technological formula, whereas the raw material and technological formula of green glaze were not stable enough. To meet temple construction needs, workers were skilled in firing glazed tiles with different glaze color requirements, indicating that the glaze color of the glazed tiles was relatively mature at that time.

Growing bio-tiles using microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation

Using the biomimetic process known as microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP), the growth of bio-tiles was investigated as an alternative to conventionally fired ceramic tiles which require operating temperatures above 1000 °C, therefore adding to global carbon emissions. The ureolytic activity of Sporosarcina pasteurii was controlled by centrifuging and dilution with fresh yeast extract media. The bio-tiles were grown using a novel submersion method in which custom moulds were placed in exact positions within the bio-reactor and each was mixed individually from beneath. Five parameters were optimised to achieve bio-tiles (dimensions of 100 × 100 × 10 mm) of breaking strength comparable to conventional tiles of equivalent thickness. By optimising ureolytic activity (4.0 mmol/L·min), the cementation solution concentration (0.3 M), the particle size distribution (D10 = 312 μm; D50 = 469 μm), the volume of cementation solution, as well as the addition of supplemental magnesium (0.3 M), bio-tiles with a breaking strength 637 N ± 60 N and a modulus of rupture of 13.0 N/mm2 ± 2.3 N were produced. These parameters exceed the conventional standards of breaking strength and modulus of rupture of 600 N and 8 N/mm2, respectively, the standards set for tiles with a water absorption above 10 %. This is also the first time that an optimum CaCO3 precipitation rate constant has been identified (0.11–0.18 day−1) for producing bio-tiles that meet the strength properties of conventional extruded ceramic tiles. The tile manufacturing technique described in this study is easy to operate and scale since multiple bio-tiles can be produced in larger cementation tanks. This natural tile making process also benefits the environment by operating at room temperature.

Study on the feasibility of partial replacement of cement with IOT in extruded concrete roof tiles production

The use of mining waste (IOT) as supplementary materials for cement has the potential to significantly reduce carbon emissions, helping to mitigate the demand for natural resources and the impacts associated with their production.Concrete tiles have been gaining prominence in recent years due to practicality, aesthetics, weather resistance, attractive price, ease of fitting and useful life, however, there is no information in the literature about the effect of IOT as a pozzolanic material for partial replacement of Portland cement in these composites. Therefore, this study aims to expose the use of iron ore tailing (IOT) as a partial replacement for Portland cement in extruded concrete tiles in different proportions, qualifying and classifying them according to the marketing standards. The performance of concrete roof tiles using IOT was analyzed for bulk density, dry weight, apparent porosity, water absorption, wettability, breaking load, impact strength, coefficient of restitution, and thermal conductivity. In addition, microscopy and X-ray diffraction examined interactions between IOT particles and cementitious matrix at 28 days and after accelerated aging. Economic analyses regarding the effect of using IOT on the final cost of concrete roof tiles were also performed. The results showed that the concrete roof tiles produced with IOT presented suitable physical, mechanical, and thermal properties, highlighting the samples with 10% IOT as a replacement for cement, which proved superior to conventional tiles for the breaking load at 28 days, also presenting an average value reduction of 6.61% for porosity and 33.33% for wettability. All formulations were approved for breaking load according to the international marketing standard and may cut costs for companies producing cement roof tiles by up to 40%. In addition to reducing the potentially harmful waste in containment dams, IOT may lessen the demand for Portland cement and, consequently, CO2 emissions, producing more sustainable composites with significantly reduced manufacturing costs.

A novel dry granule preparation technology and comparison of granule properties with conventional wet system for ceramic tiles production

The ceramic tile manufacturing process uses a lot of energy, mainly thermal energy, and to a lesser extent electric energy. Total energy costs account for between 50% and 55% of average direct manufacturing costs. Fossil fuel combustion, such as natural gas combustion, produces carbon dioxide emission. Therefore, energy consumption and emissions issues are vitally important for both environmental effects and process costs in ceramic tile manufacturing. The wet process of granule production systems including wet grinding and spray drying is widely used for the production of granules. Although there is high energy consumption for the water evaporation in the spray dryer, it ensures to produce high quality tile for many years. In this study, important granule properties were introduced for a novel dry granule production system. In the successful application of a dry granulation system, the conformity of produced granules is vitally important such as particle size distribution, bulk density, flow properties, and moisture of granules and conformity for the pressing process. This paper includes the comparative studies for properties of granules produced in spray dryer and new dry granule preparation systems and the full results of the industrial trials with these granules. The cost comparison of both granule production systems was also made for the same raw material usage. The natural gas consumption and water consumption were reduced respectively from 46 to 15 m3/ton and from 540 to 95 liters/ton in the new dry granulation system while electricity consumption and maintenance costs remain almost the same in both systems.

Recycling of bypass cement kiln dust in the production of eco-friendly roof tiles

Most of the research of building materials companies at present focuses on recycling waste to minimize the cost of their products and for the safe disposal of these wastes. In this work, the by-pass cement kiln dust (BCKD), the dust that is discarded from the kiln system was used for the preparation of roof tiles. It is partially used to substitute clay in percentages from 5% up to 25%. to prepare roof tiles abiding by ASTM C1167 for two objectives, the safe disposal of waste and the production of low-cost roof tiles. The raw materials were assessed by particle size analysis, XRD, and XRF. The mud was poured into moulds with dimensions of 150 * 30 * 25 mm3 and pressed under a pressure of 10 MPa then dried. The dried samples were fired to temperatures 1000, 1100, and 1150 °C with a soaking time of one hour for each temperature. The linear firing shrinkage, water absorption, bulk density, and breaking strength were measured to determine the properties of the fired specimens. The initial rate of absorption and runoff properties were also determined for the optimal samples. The results showed that samples containing 8% and 12% of BCKD waste that fired at 1100 °C and 1150 °C had cold water absorption of 14% and a saturation coefficient of 0.85, both of which were below the maximum values of the standard limits. Furthermore, the measured breaking strength of about 2700 N was much higher than the necessary minimum value. The results showed that samples met the requirements of ASTM 1167 for clay-type roof tiles containing 8% BCKD waste and fired to 1100 °C. For economic and environmental benefits, 1100 °C firing temperature is recommended than 1150 °C. The initial rate of absorption was found to be 2.8 kg.m−2 and the runoff properties were found to be 0.02 mg.l−1, 7.53, 110.5 mg.l−1 for total dissolved solids, pH and total solids respectively.

Tillverkning av medeltida ugnskakel i Stockholm och Uppsala – Ett meddelande om fynd från undersökningarna vid Slussen

As early as the late Middle Ages, the tiled stove was used as a source of heating, albeit only in the most prestigioussettings. Late medieval stove tiles have been found in very few places in Stockholm and mainly in high-status environments. The recent excavations at Slussen have uncoveredseveral new finds of medieval stove tiles.During the 15th century, exclusive tiles of the same type was produced in Central Europe. However, 19th century finds of matrices, indicate that there may have been a domestic production of exclusive tiles as early as the end of the 15th century. The earliest written record of a potter in Stockholm dates to 1479, and thus a local production of stove tiles is probable as well.However, whether the late medieval tiles were imported or made locally from imported matrices has not yet been established. A recent ICP-analysis of the clay in medieval stove tiles found at Slussen has now ascertained their provenance to both Stockholm andUppsala. The results can further contribute to the discussion on trade and crafts exchange in Hanseatic Europe.