Mangrove Resources Research Articles

Winners and Losers in Area-Based Management of a Small-Scale Fishery in the Colombian Pacific

The Pacific coast of Colombia has some of the most extensive mangrove forests in South America. As an isolated region and one of the country’s poorest, coastal communities rely on fishing as a main source of animal protein and income. In an attempt to reverse declining trends of fisheries resources, in 2008, an Exclusive Zone of Artisanal Fishing closed to industrial fishing, was established by stakeholders in the Northern Choco region. Here we present a case study to investigate the effects of this area-based management on fisheries productivity and catch composition. Fishery landings data from 2010 to 2013 are compared to those of a neighbouring region with no fisheries management. Catch per unit effort, mean weight landed, and number of landed individuals were calculated for mangrove and non-mangrove associated species by boat type and fishing gear. A set of mixed effects models were used to unpack the effects of multiple factors and their interactions on response variables. Results show that across fishing gears and time, mean catch per unit effort increased by 50% in the Exclusive Zone of Artisanal Fishing within 3 years. Fisheries here focused on offshore resources with 61% more fishing trips associated with motorized boats than in the unmanaged region, where fishing was predominantly in mangroves and close to the coast. This suggests that fisheries management, may have played a role in reducing pressure on mangrove resources. However, area-based management may have also driven the displacement of fishing effort by excluding industrial trawlers, which then concentrated their activity in neighbouring areas.

Degree of community participation in mangrove resources management as livelihood support in West Java, Indonesia

Mangrove forests in the northern coastal region of Pantai Bahagia Village, Muara Gembong, Bekasi Regency, West Java, form a crucial component of the livelihoods of coastal communities. However, mangrove systems are being degraded and lost at an alarming rate due to their conversion to aquaculture and abrasion since 1992. To overcome this problem, community of fishermen, naming themselves as Kelompok Sadar Wisata and Kelompok Bahagia Berkarya voluntarily started mangrove cultivation and began to implement Community-Based Mangrove Management (CBMM) with various approaches and outcomes. This study will examine and the participatory level of the CBMM practice within the community, analyze the achieved rehabilitation and its strategies to accomplish sustainable management of mangrove resources in the village through qualitative and descriptive statistic methods. The local data on institutions, socio-economic conditions, and mangrove resources utilization will be collected through in depth interviews with 40 key actors from 15 households. The study resulted that the degree of participatory in Pantai Bahagia Village is in the Delegated Power level, which means that citizen is given the permit to utilize the area to independently cultivate the mangrove area as long as it complies with government’s regulation.

Social-ecological dynamics of the small scale fisheries in Sundarban Mangrove Forest, Bangladesh

The Sundarban Mangrove Forest (SMF) is an intricate ecosystem containing the most varied and profuse natural resources of Bangladesh. This study presents empirical research, based on primary and secondary data, regarding the social-ecological system (SES), social-ecological dynamics, different stakeholders and relevant management policies of small-scale or artisanal fisheries such as the SMF; showing how, despite extensive diversification, the livelihood activities of the artisanal fishers in the SMF all depend on the forest itself. Regardless of this critical importance of mangroves, however, deforestation continues due to immature death of mangroves, illegal logging, increased salinity, natural disasters and significant household consumption of mangrove wood by local people. As the mangroves are destroyed fish stocks, and other fishery resources are reduced, leading to moves of desperation among those whose livelihood has traditionally been fishing. The present study also considers several risks and shock factors in the fishers' livelihood: attacks by wild animals (especially tigers) and local bandits, illness, natural disasters, river bank erosion, and the cost of paying off corrupt officials. The artisanal fishers of the SMF have adopted different strategies for coping with these problems: developing partnerships, violating the fisheries management laws and regulations, migrating, placing greater responsibility on women, and bartering fishing knowledge and information. This study shows how the social component (human), the ecological component (mangrove resources) and the interphase aspects (local ecological knowledge, stakeholder's interest, and money lenders or middle man roles) of the SMF as an SES are linked in mutual interaction. It furthermore considers how the social-ecological dynamics of the SMF have negative impacts on artisanal fishermen's livelihoods. Hence there is an urgency to update existing policies and management issues for the sustainable utilization of the SMF resources, eventually contributing to the improvement of the artisanal fishers' livelihoods.

Valuation Economy Restoration Program of Mangrove Forest Pasarbanggi Village District of Rembang

This study aims to identify the problems and find the economic value of mangrove forest restoration program utilization of village Pasarbanggi Rembang. The research of using the DPSIR analysis and cost-benefit analysis methods which include Net Present Value (NPV), Interest Rate of Return (IRR), Net B/C Ratio, and Payback Period. DPSIR analysis results known that human activity is divided into two types, namely constructive and destructive. constructive activity derives from the awareness of local people who have had a positive outlook towards the sustainability of mangrove resources and desire to contribute to conservation. More destructive activity resulting from external factor. The results of the cost-benefit analysis method shows that the NPV is obtained by using the discount factor of 9% amounting to IDR 4.990.339.459- with an IRR of 16.73%, Net B/C Ratio of 1.77 with the returns can be achieved after 8 years 9 the moon. The value of mangrove forest to reviewed by value to the option with the highest biodiversity of mangrove forests is IDR 12.328.200- per year.

TOTAL VALUE OF MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM IN NORTH GORONTALO REGENCY, GORONTALO PROVINCE

Mangrove forest is the main life-supporting ecosystem in coastal and marine areas. Little information is available on quantifying of mangrove function as well as its benefit. The study is conducted to quantify the total value of the mangrove ecosystem in North Gorontalo Regency. Data were collected through interviews with users and non-users of the resources along with secondary data such as the amount of carbon storage and cost of standard construction of break water for mangrove ecosystem. Data were analyzed by using economic valuation techniques for calculating total value of the mangrove ecosystem. The results showed that the ecological value was Rp18,205,000,890/hectare/year, the economic value was Rp40,716,063/hectare/year, while the social and cultural values was Rp20,341,259/hectare/year. Hence, the total value of mangrove ecosystem in North Gorontalo Regency amounts to Rp18,266,058,212/hectare/year. This shows the importance of the mangrove resources in term of its values that needs to be informed to the decision-makers, so that it can be managed in a sustainable way with proper benefits and costs consideration.

Mangrove Conservation in the Coastal Areas of Lala, Lanao del Norte, Philippines: Management Strategies and Impacts on the Status of the Mangrove Forest

Mangroves is one of the most threatened and rapidly disappearing natural ecosystem worldwide. In 2007, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reported that global mangrove coverage had declined from 18.8 million ha in 1980 to 15.2 million ha by the end of 2005. In the Philippines, the total recorded mangrove area is approximately 450,000 ha in early 1900’s. However, these mangrove forests were constantly subjected to immense pressures of human-induced degradations such as illegal logging and conversion to fish and shrimp ponds, leaving only 117,700 ha in 1995, in effect causing the decline of fishery resources. Hence, the Philippine Government is taking efforts to rehabilitate mangrove forest through National Greening Program (NGP) and declaring mangrove areas as protected areas throughout the country. This study therefore examined the conservation management strategies applied in the coastal areas of Lala, Lanaodel Norte, Mindanao in the Philippines. A survey was conducted using semi-structures questionnaire with 76 randomly chosen household respondents. Key informant interview were also employed to understand the management strategies used by local government. Results revealed that the knowledge of the community regarding the mangrove resource and its conservation is independent from their level of educational attainment (p=0.864) due to the trainings conducted by government agencies on both barangays. Likewise, the increase in awareness of the importance of mangrove resource contributed to the change in attitude and perception of the community (p=0.015). However, the age, gender and length of stay (p=0.006, 0.026, and 0.002, respectively) affects the community’s attitude to participate in the mangrove conservation management. It was also found out in the study that the diversity of mangroves in the area is low. Therefore, it implies that although there are current management strategies to conserve the degrading forest, it still needs improvement. The policy-makers can lobby on the willingness of the community to participate since majority (67%) of them were willing to voluntarily take part in the rehabilitation activities. Keywords: Mangrove management, Community knowledge, Perception, Willingness to participate, Diversity

Genetic diversity and connectivity in the East African giant mud crab Scylla serrata: Implications for fisheries management.

The giant mud crab Scylla serrata provides an important source of income and food to coastal communities in East Africa. However, increasing demand and exploitation due to the growing coastal population, export trade, and tourism industry are threatening the sustainability of the wild stock of this species. Because effective management requires a clear understanding of the connectivity among populations, this study was conducted to assess the genetic diversity and connectivity in the East African mangrove crab S. serrata. A section of 535 base pairs of the cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) gene and eight microsatellite loci were analysed from 230 tissue samples of giant mud crabs collected from Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Madagascar, and South Africa. Microsatellite genetic diversity (He) ranged between 0.56 and 0.6. The COI sequences showed 57 different haplotypes associated with low nucleotide diversity (current nucleotide diversity = 0.29%). In addition, the current nucleotide diversity was lower than the historical nucleotide diversity, indicating overexploitation or historical bottlenecks in the recent history of the studied population. Considering that the coastal population is growing rapidly, East African countries should promote sustainable fishing practices and sustainable use of mangrove resources to protect mud crabs and other marine fauna from the increasing pressure of exploitation. While microsatellite loci did not show significant genetic differentiation (p > 0.05), COI sequences revealed significant genetic divergence between sites on the East coast of Madagascar (ECM) and sites on the West coast of Madagascar, mainland East Africa, as well as the Seychelles. Since East African countries agreed to achieve the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) target to protect over 10% of their marine areas by 2020, the observed pattern of connectivity and the measured genetic diversity can serve to provide useful information for designing networks of marine protected areas.

The implications of land tenure and ownership regimes on sustainable mangrove management and conservation in two Ramsar sites in Ghana

In spite of their economic and ecological significance, mangroves in most coastal communities, including Ramsar sites in Ghana have witnessed unprecedented exploitation, leading to degradation of the ecosystem. In the face of this degradation, several restoration and conservation interventions have been implemented by both government and civil society organizations in collaboration with the communities. However, these efforts directed at mangrove conservation and restoration in the Songor and Keta Lagoon Complex Ramsar sites have largely failed to improve the conservation and sustainable use of mangroves, because key issues relating to access, ownership regimes and land tenure are often overlooked. The study therefore focused exclusively on exploring these governance issues and how they influence the sustainable conservation and utilization of mangroves in the two Ramsar sites. Eleven communities from the Sangor Ramsar site and the Keta Lagoon Complex Ramsar site were involved in the study. Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools such as key informant interviews, focus group discussions and direct observations, as well as questionnaires were employed in generating data on ownership regimes and how they influence the management and conservation of mangroves. The results showed that the existing ownership regime of mangrove resources has a direct bearing on the effectiveness of mangrove conservation and utilization. While mangroves under individual ownership dominated at Keta Lagoon Complex Ramsar site, family owned mangroves dominated the Songor Ramsar site. Most of the existing mangrove ownership regimes (community, clan or family lands) in the area allow access to the people to exploit mangrove resources indiscriminately without restrictions/regulations which results in over exploitation and degradation. Given the weakness of effective governance regimes and inadequacy of a formal legal framework governing mangroves in the Ramsar sites, a collaborative effort between the Forestry Commission and the communities or individually owned mangrove areas that “formalizes” mangrove management present the best opportunity to regulate access and exploitation of the mangroves at the Songor and Keta Lagoon Complex Ramsar sites, by providing legal backing to the community governance arrangements for sustainable conservation and restoration efforts.

Effectiveness of community-based mangrove management for sustainable resource use and livelihood support: A case study of four villages in Central Java, Indonesia

Community-Based Mangrove Management (CBMM) is implemented with different approaches and outcomes. This study examined the effectiveness of various CBMM practices to achieve sustainable management of mangrove resources. We analyzed local mangrove resource management strategies in four coastal villages (e.g. Sriwulan, Bedono, Timbulsloko, and Surodadi) on Central Java, Indonesia. Local data on institutions, socio-economic conditions and mangrove resources utilization was collected through participatory resource mapping and interviews with 16 key actors and 500 households. The main differences in CBMM-practices that affect the outcomes in each village were the type of community participation, the level of organizational and economic assistance from external institutions, the magnitude of the rehabilitation project, the time selected for rehabilitation and the maintenance strategies applied in each village. Surodadi achieved most in terms of both efficient resource utilization and local livelihood improvement. Bedono's management strategy was most effective in extending and maintaining the rehabilitated mangrove areas but less in terms of livelihood support while the strategy applied in Timbulsloko resulted in higher resource utilization compared to Surodadi. Sriwulan failed on most criteria. This study suggests that combining the management strategies practiced in Bedono and Surodadi and adding external scientific and technological assistance, income diversification, institutional reinforcement and continuous monitoring of the functioning of local institutions can improve the CBMM performance to sustainably manage mangrove resources and improve livelihoods.

Present and past uses of mangrove wood in the subtropical Bay of Paranaguá (Paraná, Brazil)

Although Brazil has defined mangroves as permanent preservation areas and banned the exploration of any mangrove resources, wood is still explored by underprivileged coastal populations. Restrictions regulating the use of mangrove wood are at odds with the social reality of many traditional or neo-traditional coastal populations that depend on this resource. The current social conflicts raised or intensified by a restrictive federal legislation clearly point to the need of less controversial management strategies. Knowledge of the present and past usage of mangrove resources is a necessary basis for the development of more viable and reasonable conservation strategies. In this study, we defined the current and past uses of mangrove wood in coastal villages of the subtropical Bay of Paranaguá, in Southern Brazil. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with longtime residents or community leaders. The main past uses were woodcutting for firewood and tannin extraction, sold or used for subsistence. Current uses are mostly related to fishing activities and have been restricted to personal consumption. The use of wood has declined in the last decades due to law restrictions, the increasing availability of new energy sources and new materials for fishing such as nylon nets. We suggest that natural forest turnover, combined with appropriate management actions, could allow for sustainable wood extraction in places where populations are small and mangroves are extensive, as in this subtropical estuarine system. Even though the current need for wood resources is not significant, the use of wood may help local residents in their daily needs and improve their quality of life.

Coastal Objects: Mangrove Area Extraction Using Remote Sensing and Aerial LiDAR Data in Roxas, Oriental Mindoro

The Phil-LiDAR 2 program aims to extract the natural resources of the Philippines from the available two points per square meter LiDAR data. Mangroves, being coastal resources, were one of the foci of this program under the Aquatic Resources Extraction from LiDAR Surveys (CoastMap). The object-based image analysis (OBIA) approach, and support vector machine (SVM) algorithm were utilized to classify three major classes from the LiDAR data, namely: mangrove, other vegetation, and non-vegetation. Object feature values used in the classification include the mean, standard deviation, mode, and texture values from the generated LiDAR derivatives. These derivatives include the Digital Surface Model (DSM), Digital Terrain Model (DTM), Canopy Height Model (CHM), Intensity, Number of Returns, Normalized DSM (NDSM), Slope, and Slope of Slope. Moreover, field data collection and validation provided key references in the supervised SVM classification and contextual editing of the extracted mangrove areas. From the implemented classification, an overall accuracy of above 90% was achieved. Focusing with the final classified mangrove coverage, management of the mangrove resources can be made proper and efficient. Furthermore, high resolution or detailed spatial information can support programs like Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation Plus (REDD+) and biodiversity studies.

Mangrove allocation for coastal protection and livelihood improvement in Kien Giang province, Vietnam: Constraints and recommendations

A management policy adopted by the Kien Giang Province, Vietnam, is to allocate mangroves areas using contracts with local community members who are dependent on mangrove resources for both mangrove protection and livelihood improvement. However, community members have not made the best use of the allocated areas, and mangroves have not been well protected. The policy is due to be revised in late 2016, as is legally required. This study used mixed methods to review the policy and its implementation with respect to mangrove protection requirements and use of mangroves for livelihood improvement and to provide recommendations for sustainable mangrove management in Kien Giang. The policy and its implementation is demonstrated to be a constraint to achieving its goal. Limited understanding of the policy of contractees resulted in ineffective and inefficient aquaculture and mangrove protection in almost all areas. Permitted thinning and selective harvests led to the creation of substantial gaps and disconnections in the established mangroves, making the entire coastline vulnerable to coastal erosion. Improper technical guidance on the configuration of mangrove allocations, and mangrove protection and transplantation methods resulted in the mangrove protected areas being fragmented and vulnerable to erosion. Permitted thinning and selective harvest practices should be reviewed to ensure adequate resilience and protection of mangrove areas, especially on critically eroding areas. Proper law enforcement should be put in place to ensure contracts are adequately implemented. Allocation and/or transferal of areas less than 1ha must be discontinued in the future to avoid further defragmentation and degradation. Technical guidance on configuring allocated mangrove areas should be established and incorporated into the updated policy that would help improve the effectiveness of the policy, and address problems relating to strengthening resilience and protection of mangrove areas in Kien Giang Province, Vietnam.Similar programs using mangrove area allocation to individuals and households in response to mangrove area loss exist elsewhere in the Mekong delta. Understanding the reasons for the very limited success of the Kien Giang program and local co-investigation in drawing lessons learnt can help guide other similar programs elsewhere in the Mekong Delta region.

Development of bio-rights incentive scheme for participatory restoration and conservation of mangrove resources

Abstract. Suharti S. 2017. Development of bio-rights incentive scheme for participatory restoration and conservation of mangrove resources. Biodiversitas 18: 121-128. Bio-rights incentive scheme is one strategy to accommodate efforts to increase economic benefits with efforts to prevent counterproductive activities to the environment (through restoration and conservation of natural resources). This study aims to assess the implementation of bio-rights incentive schemes, its achievements, and challenges in its implementation. The research was done by using survey method in Pesantren Village, Ulu Jami Sub-district, Pemalang, Central Java, Indonesia, which is the location of the pilot project established by Wetland International Indonesia (WII). The research was done in August to December 2014. The results showed that bio-rights incentives scheme could encourage the community to participate actively in restoration and conservation of mangrove resources. Implementation of bio-rights scheme was done through the provision of micro-credits to the community groups to develop activities that can generate sustainable income. Loan repayments and its interest was not in cash, but in the form of conservation service activities such as reforestation, habitat protection and the prevention of unsustainable land use. Through the bio-rights scheme, besides gaining financial benefits, villagers in Pesantren also received other benefits such as improvement of environmental conditions (widespread mangrove plantation, improvement in land productivity and the intensity of mangrove aquaculture).
 Keywords: Bio-rights, conservation, mangrove, participatory, restoration

Assessment of Climate Change Adaptation Options and their Implications on Mangrove Resources in Bagamoyo District, Tanzania

Assessment of Climate Change Adaptation Options and their Implications on Mangrove Resources in Bagamoyo District, Tanzania

Mangrove ecotourism development at Bilik and Sijile Beach, Labuhan Merak, Baluran National Park, East Java

Pangastuti WM, Arief H, Sunarminto T. 2016. Mangrove ecotourism development at Bilik and Sijile Beach, Labuhan Merak. Baluran National Park, East Java. Bonorowo Wetlands 6: 92-102. Mangrove ecosystem in Bilik and Sejile Beach Baluran National Park, East Java were potential to be mangrove ecotourism. The aim of this research was to give alternative strategies of mangrove ecotourism development in Labuhan Merak Resort, Baluran National Park based on demand and supply aspects of ecotourism. Data were collected by interview, questionnaires, observation and literature study with ecosystem mangrove resources and local people of Sumberwaru village as the object of research. Development of mangrove ecotourism in Bilik and Sejile Beach can be do by make the detail of ecotourism concept synchronize with the tourist interest and also with the local people participation, improve the facilities and infrastructure, improve the quality and quantity of the human resources, improve the cleanliness and safety of Bilik and Sejile Beach, optimize the promotion and make interpretation for the tourist.

The Establishment of a Community-based Mangrove Forest Management Plan: Lessons Learned from Mangrove Forest Conservation in the Nernkhor Sub-district, Rayong Province, Thailand

This study aims to investigate key elements of community-based ecological management (CBEM) in a rural area with plentiful mangrove resources. The investigated elements of CBEM include stakeholders’ benefits from sharing ecosystems services provided by themangrove forests, stakeholders’ roles in ecological conservation, and their participation in decision-making processes at each stage of the ecological management process. Additionally, the study intends to reveal factors that determine the success of CBEMcreation processes, including agenda setting, matching, restructuring, clarifying, and the routinizing stage. Semi-structured interviews and group discussions were conducted with relevant stakeholders, such as community leaders, typical villagers, fishermen, and local businessmen residing in the Nernkhor Sub-district of the Rayong Province, Thailand. The results of content analyses demonstrated that the success of CBEM creation processes in the Nernkhor Sub-district was related, to a great extent, to stakeholders’ awareness of ecological values, the perceived legitimacy of ecological resource management efforts, and active communication among stakeholders. In addition, it was found that CBEM was successfully implemented due to stakeholders’ perceptions of political equity, cost-sharing for conservation activities and the socioeconomic benefits of sharing the ecosystem services provided by the mangrove forest.

Governance Indicators for Effective Management of Mangrove Resources

Mangroves and marshes provide mutual benefits in terms of providing aquatic eco-systems. Swamp forests contribute a variety of services to carry out activities that depend on water resources such as agricultural production, fishing and tourism. Although the benefits are many, but the destruction of mangrove forests is alarming. A major reason for excessive depletion and conversion of wetland resources is often the failure to account adequately for their non market environmental values in developmental decision. The management role of the relevant agencies will only be effective pending supports by other stakeholders who may benefit directly or indirectly from the mangrove forest. Thus the approach should not only focus on the technical nor economic and socio political issues only but to reinforce the relationships of the players or actors who have interest in the domain of mangrove forest. This study aims to identify the process of governance and its effectiveness in managing the ecosystem and also assessing the role of mangrove forests towards local communities in Kuching Wetlands. Items are analyzed using factor analysis and the factor extraction leads to multiple regression method. The study distinguish that among the important factors in influencing the public perception of local governance mangrove forests in Kuching Wetlands, are community awareness, handling problems and conflict in the existing rules while other factors were not significant. However, most of the wetland local community does not contribute to ecotourism industry, even though they are aware of the importance if sustaining it. Thus the government can take opportunity to raise the awareness via the potential income that can be generated from eco tourism activities and realizing its importance of sustaining the natural resources.

MODEL COMPONENTS OF MANGROVE RESOURCES MANAGEMENT BASED ON BLUE ECONOMY CONCEPT

This study was aimed at analyzing variables affecting mangrove resource conservation based on blue economy concept. The model component analysis applied Spearman Rank Correlation test. Result showed that Z-calc.was bigger than Z-tab. (1.64) at 95% confidence level, and therefore, Ho was rejected. This study concluded that resource efficiency, without wastes, social awareness, cyclic system of production, innovation and adaptation, and institution were blue economy concept-based variables . In this case, institutional management of good governance is highly needed. Nevertheless, this study has still focused on limited issues, and therefore, more variables should be added in future studies in relation with their impacts on the blue economy management. Keywords: blue economy, management, mangrove, conservation

Vulnerability Among Fishers in Southern Brazil and its Relation to Marine Protected Areas in a Scenario of Declining Fisheries

Vulnerability of small-scale fishers in the north coast of Paraná State, Southern Brazil, has been increasing due to a decline in catches and general problems of access to and management of natural resources, associated with biodiversity conservation policies. The predicted effects of climate change will represent an additional source of disturbance on local livelihoods. This study aimed to describe vulnerability of fishers and their adaptation strategies to ongoing reductions in catches, considered an analogue of possible responses to expected effects of climate change, and to evaluate the influence of no-take protected areas on them. Interviews were applied to 213 households, in 9 villages from Guaraqueçaba, in the Paranaguá Estuarine Complex. Results show that vulnerability varies in different spatial levels, mainly due to differences in the reliance on fisheries as a source of income, and in distribution of physical and social capital. Protected areas, if not adequately managed, can have a double negative effect on more vulnerable households, by restricting their access to mangrove resources in the present, and by limiting the viability of their favoured adaptation strategy for the future. These results are potentially useful for the development of biodiversity conservation and fisheries management actions adequate to the local level, and that contribute to reduce inequality and build resilience of fishers and the coastal ecosystems they rely on, in a scenario of declining fisheries and climate change.

Impacts of land use on Indian mangrove forest carbon stocks: Implications for conservation and management.

Globally, mangrove forests represents only 0.7% of world's tropical forested area but are highly threatened due to susceptibility to climate change, sea level rise, and increasing pressures from human population growth in coastal regions. Our study was carried out in the Bhitarkanika Conservation Area (BCA), the second-largest mangrove area in eastern India. We assessed total ecosystem carbon (C) stocks at four land use types representing varying degree of disturbances. Ranked in order of increasing impacts, these sites included dense mangrove forests, scrub mangroves, restored/planted mangroves, and abandoned aquaculture ponds. These impacts include both natural and/or anthropogenic disturbances causing stress, degradation, and destruction of mangroves. Mean vegetation C stocks (including both above- and belowground pools; mean±standard error) in aquaculture, planted, scrub, and dense mangroves were 0, 7±4, 65±11 and 100±11 Mg C/ha, respectively. Average soil C pools for aquaculture, planted, scrub, and dense mangroves were 61±8, 92±20, 177±14, and 134±17 Mg C/ha, respectively. Mangrove soils constituted largest fraction of total ecosystem C stocks at all sampled sites (aquaculture [100%], planted [90%], scrub [72%], and dense mangrove [57%]). Within BCA, the four studied land use types covered an area of ~167km2 and the total ecosystem C stocks were 0.07Tg C for aquaculture (~12km2 ), 0.25Tg C for planted/ restored mangrove (~24km2 ), 2.29teragrams (Tg) Tg C for scrub (~93km2 ), and 0.89Tg C for dense mangroves (~38km2 ). Although BCA is protected under Indian wildlife protection and conservation laws, ~150 000 people inhabit this area and are directly or indirectly dependent on mangrove resources for sustenance. Estimates of C stocks of Bhitarkanika mangroves and recognition of their role as a C repository could provide an additional reason to support conservation and restoration of Bhitarkanika mangroves. Harvesting or destructive exploitation of mangroves by local communities for economic gains can potentially be minimized by enabling these communities to avail themselves of carbon offset/conservation payments under approved climate change mitigation strategies and actions.