Mandatory Standards Research Articles

The Unintended Ecological and Social Impacts of Food Safety Regulations in California's Central Coast Region

Forum DANIEL S. KARP, PATRICK BAUR, EDWARD R. ATWILL, KATHRYN DE MASTER, SASHA GENNET, ALASTAIR ILES, JOANNA L. NELSON, AMBER R. SCILIGO, AND CLAIRE KREMEN In 2006, a multistate Escherichia coli O157:H7 outbreak linked to spinach grown in California’s Central Coast region caused public concerns, catalyzing far-reaching reforms in vegetable production. Industry and government pressured growers to adopt costly new measures to improve food safety, many of which targeted wildlife as a disease vector. In response, many growers fenced fields, lined field edges with wildlife traps and poison, and removed remaining adjacent habitat. Although the efficacy of these and other practices for mitigating pathogen risk have not been thoroughly evaluated, their widespread adoption has substantial consequences for rural livelihoods, biodiversity, and ecological processes. Today, as federal regulators are poised to set mandatory standards for on-farm food safety throughout the United States, major gaps persist in understanding the relationships between farming systems and food safety. Addressing food-safety knowledge gaps and developing effective farming practices are crucial for co-managing agriculture for food production, conservation, and human health. Keywords: agroecosystems, conservation, public health, Escherichia coli O157:H7, pathogen, socioecological system A n Escherichia coli O157:H7 outbreak in spinach in 2006 sickened hundreds and triggered systemwide reforms to the leafy greens industry (LGMA 2013). Farming practices for fresh produce in California’s Central Coast region (figure 1a), where the outbreak originated, changed markedly in response, leading to a variety of unintended social and ecological impacts. Concern that wildlife vectored the disease led to strong pressure on growers to erect fences, set out wildlife traps and poison, and remove vegetation that might harbor wildlife around their farms. Growers bore the cost not only for preventing wildlife intrusion but also for monitoring contamination, funding self-audits, maintain- ing records, hiring food-safety staff, and forfeiting suspect crops. Research to date has documented the socioecological changes generated by the food-safety reforms in the Central Coast region (Beretti and Stuart 2007, Lowell et al. 2010, Gennet et al. 2013), which can provide insight into what may happen if similar reforms are adopted on farms throughout the United States. Preventing life-threatening illness is a clear public-health priority. Our purpose in discussing the socioecological impacts of on-farm practices for food safety is to advance the conversation on the need for and opportunity to co-manage agricultural, environmental, and public-health objectives in an integrated framework. Here, we briefly discuss the development of US food-safety policy to contextualize how industry, government, and the American public responded to the 2006 E. coli O157:H7 outbreak. We then review how and why agricultural practices have changed in the Central Coast region and identify potential externalities of produce- safety reform that deserve further scrutiny. On the basis of insights gained from the Central Coast, we then illustrate more generally how foodborne outbreaks can reverber- ate through socioecological systems. Finally, we suggest a path forward to close important knowledge gaps and move toward an agricultural system that is co-managed for mul- tiple benefits, including food safety; agricultural production of fresh, nutritious food; nature conservation; and ecosystem services. Context for the response to the 2006 E. coli 0157:H7 outbreak Although 2006 marked a turning point for produce-safety reform, produce-related illnesses have been increasing for BioScience 65: 1173–1183. © The Author(s) 2015. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Institute of Biological Sciences. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com. doi:10.1093/biosci/biv152 Advance Access publication 25 November 2015 http://bioscience.oxfordjournals.org December 2015 / Vol. 65 No. 12 • BioScience 1173 Downloaded from http://bioscience.oxfordjournals.org/ at The University of British Colombia Library on November 25, 2015 The Unintended Ecological and Social Impacts of Food Safety Regulations in California’s Central Coast Region

Why regulators adopt voluntary programs: a theoretical analysis of voluntary pollutant reduction programs

To explain why regulators continue to implement voluntary emission reduction programs (VP), this study presents a model with multiple polluting firms, a trade association, a regulator, and a legislator who sets a mandatory standard and is politically influenced by the trade association, a representative of the polluting firms. We show that the regulator can implement a voluntary program, which generates less social cost and more aggregate abatement than a mandatory standard. We also find that assigning the greatest importance to the abatement rates of individual firms generates the highest level of social welfare if the damage due to individual firms’ emissions does not depend on other firms’ emissions. However, the importance of the participation rate will increase relatively to the abatement rate as the damage due to individual firms’ emissions becomes more sensitive to other firms’ emissions.

Economic impact of cross compliance in the field of animal welfare (Acts C18 and C16)

The paper reports the results of assessment of animal welfare at farm level on two dairy cattle farms, identification of structural and management actions to improve the animal welfare and estimate of the costs of such actions; furthermore the economic impact of the potential support under measure 215 of the Rural Development Plan was also simulated. At the time of assessment, no severe break of compliance was detected at the two farms; however some weaknesses were identified and improvement were proposed in order to maintain the current animal welfare status and avoid future failures. The two use cases showed that investments to improve animal welfare were partly self funded in the mid and long term due to the higher milk yield and the better animal health that were expected as consequence; however, in the short term, a large part of expenses was fully borne by farmers if not supported by a public grant or higher market prices. The support provided by the measure 215 is effective in rewarding farmers who undertake to adopt standards of animal husbandry which go beyond the relevant mandatory standards.

The new German prevention act: an effective strategy?

The new German prevention act attempts to deal with the influx of obesity and chronic diseases by educating and informing. It seeks to change individual behaviour and supress lifestyle-related risk factors. In the past, however this behavioural prevention strategy has proved ineffective. A structural prevention strategy, as requested by the WHO, should additionally be put into effect with measures that reach all walks of life, not just the health-conscious people in society. It proposes the following: · At least one hour of daily physical activity or sport at school and kindergarten. · A differential food tax that makes unhealthy foods more expensive and healthy foods cheaper (taxing sugary / fatty foods). · Mandatory quality standards for kindergarten and school meals. · Banning food advertising targeted at children.

Construction Materials and Green Building Certification

Sustainable building management is a complex problem which needs effective, adequate and suitable assessment tools and methods to address issues of incommensurability and complexity, always considering the prevailing environmental policies and legislation. Within the frame of this paper, green certifications building schemes have been described, compared to each other and evaluated, against the background of the standards provided by the International Organization for Standardization. Emphasis have been placed on information referring to construction materials environmental evaluation based on the Life Cycle Analysis methodology and the role of construction materials selection to green building certification schemes. Finally, the impact of green certification schemes on the construction market, mainly as a tool of energy management, has also been examined in relation to the absence of mandatory international standardization in sustainable building management.

The integration of quality and safety concerns in the wine industry: the role of third-party voluntary certifications

Over the past few years, public attention has focused on the quality and safety control, traceability, and environmental issues surrounding food products. Several mandatory public standards and private voluntary schemes worldwide have been developed to address these concerns. Using survey data, this paper analyses the key factors affecting the adoption of voluntary quality standards in the wine industry and the existence of a relationship between the adoption of voluntary quality standards and economic performance, measured in terms of labour productivity and marketing behaviour. The survey involved 89 cellars, of which 68 were non-certified and 21 had one or more food quality certifications. Using the data collected, an index based on Euclidean distances was constructed to compare economic performance between certified and non-certified firms. The findings provide evidence that internal motivations drive entrepreneurs to adopt voluntary standards and that wineries adopting voluntary standards exhibit better economic performance than non-certified wine firms. From a managerial viewpoint, these results suggest that although the adoption of voluntary quality certifications does not have a direct effect in terms of a labour productivity increase, it entails a business management improvement. For policymakers, the results suggest a need to develop policies and establish more stable financial assistance for the internationalisation of wine firms, thereby supporting them through this transition.

Medical Device Integration Model Based on the Internet of Things

At present, hospitals in our country have basically established the HIS system, which manages registration, treatment, and charge, among many others, of patients. During treatment, patients need to use medical devices repeatedly to acquire all sorts of inspection data. Currently, the output data of the medical devices are often manually input into information system, which is easy to get wrong or easy to cause mismatches between inspection reports and patients. For some small hospitals of which information construction is still relatively weak, the information generated by the devices is still presented in the form of paper reports. When doctors or patients want to have access to the data at a given time again, they can only look at the paper files. Data integration between medical devices has long been a difficult problem for the medical information system, because the data from medical devices are lack of mandatory unified global standards and have outstanding heterogeneity of devices. In order to protect their own interests, manufacturers use special protocols, etc., thus causing medical decices to still be the "lonely island" of hospital information system. Besides, unfocused application of the data will lead to failure to achieve a reasonable distribution of medical resources. With the deepening of IT construction in hospitals, medical information systems will be bound to develop towards mobile applications, intelligent analysis, and interconnection and interworking, on the premise that there is an effective medical device integration (MDI) technology. To this end, this paper presents a MDI model based on the Internet of Things (IoT). Through abstract classification, this model is able to extract the common characteristics of the devices, resolve the heterogeneous differences between them, and employ a unified protocol to integrate data between devices. And by the IoT technology, it realizes interconnection network of devices and conducts associate matching between the data and the inspected at the device terminal in a timely manner.

Global Antimicrobial Stewardship: Challenges and Successes from Frontline Stewards.

Global Antimicrobial Stewardship: Challenges and Successes from Frontline Stewards.

A Patient-Centered Transitions Framework for Persons With Complex Chronic Conditions.

Hospitals are under increasing pressures by governing bodies to meet mandated performance standards and fiscal targets. As a result, hospitals are incentivized by funders to discharge patients efficiently and effectively. Gaining insight into the patient experience of discharge, as well as understanding patient needs and concerns, is prudent. Leveraging this knowledge may expedite patient discharge and potentially minimize hospital readmission rates. The purpose of this study was to better understand the discharge experiences and concerns of patients with multiple chronic diseases-a population currently understudied. In this study, qualitative survey data were analyzed from a large scale, mixed methods study that took place in 2011 at Bridgepoint Hospital, a complex continuing care and rehabilitation facility in Toronto, Canada. One hundred and sixteen patients were interviewed individually using a self-designed survey composed of open- and close-ended questions. All data pertaining to hospital discharge were extracted and examined using qualitative descriptive analysis. Key discharge concerns were related to process (next steps in the care plan, friction in the provider-patient relationship, premature discharge), consequences (relocation, impact on family, leaving the comforts and security of the hospital), and needs (availability of home care, managing daily activities, navigating the predisability home). Our findings are presented in a patient-centered framework that can be used as a guide for future discharge strategies for complex patient populations.

Current Guidelines to Prevent Obesity in Childhood and Adolescence

Current guidelines for the prevention of obesity in childhood and adolescence are presented. A literature search was performed in Medline via PubMed, and appropriate studies were analysed. Programs to prevent childhood obesity were to date mainly school-based. Effects were limited to date. Analyses tailored to different age groups show that prevention programs have the best effects in younger children (< 12 years). Evidence based recommendations for preschool- and early school age imply the need for interventions addressing parents and teachers alike. During adolescence, school-based interventions were most effective when adolescents were directly addressed. To date, obesity prevention programs have mainly focused on behavior oriented prevention. Recommendations for condition oriented prevention have been suggested by the German Alliance of Non-communicable Diseases and include one hour of physical activity at school, promotion of healthy food choices by taxing unhealthy foods, mandatory quality standards for meals at kindergarten and schools as well as a ban on unhealthy food advertisement addressing children. Behavior oriented prevention programs showed hardly any or only limited effects in the long term. Certain risk groups for the development of obesity are not reached effectively by available programs. Due to the heterogeneity of available studies, universally valid conclusions cannot be drawn. The combination with condition oriented prevention, which has to counteract on an obesogenic environment, is crucial for sustainable success of future obesity prevention programs.

A Estratégia Norte-Americana de Forum Shifting para Negociação de Acordos TRIPS-Plus com Países da América Latina

Resumo O artigo analisa os acordos preferenciais de comércio celebrados entre Estados Unidos e alguns países da América Latina, destacando especificamente o conteúdo TRIPS-plus das regras de proteção à propriedade intelectual contidas nos acordos. Essas regras ampliam e aprofundam o padrão mínimo obrigatório do TRIPS, produzindo efeitos importantes em políticas públicas vitais para o desenvolvimento socioeconômico desses países.

Energy-efficient distribution transformers in Europe: impact of Ecodesign regulation

This paper assesses the impact of energy-efficient distribution transformers through the implementation of energy efficiency classes, as well as through mandatory standards that remove the worst transformers from the market. Energy-efficient distribution transformers can not only save about 1 % of all the electricity generated but can also save very large investments in power generation and transmission power systems. Technical solutions to reduce energy consumption of transformers are available, but the market penetration of high-efficient transformers is significantly lower than it could be. The paper analyses the main market and regulatory failures and identifies that the introduction of efficiency classes and minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) is the best way to foster energy performance in distribution transformers. Policies and measures supporting energy-efficient distribution transformers around the world are reviewed. The use of Ecodesign methodology do define possible transformer MEPS regulation is discussed for different types of distribution transformers, as well as the associated impacts. Sensitivity analysis in relation to key parameters (load factor and electricity prices) is analyzed. The energy saving potential and the environmental impacts are calculated until the year 2050 in the European Union, as well as at world level. The potential savings in the year 2050 represent about 35 TWh of electricity in Europe, equivalent to about four million tons of reduced CO2 emissions. For the world, the estimated impact in 2050 is about 450 TWh equivalent to about 180 million tons of reduced CO2 emissions.

Transnational Private Regulations for Sustainable Palm Oil in Indonesia

This study serves as preliminary remarks for further investigating the global trade regulatory framework for the sustainable palm oil industry. Concerns over several key aspects are discussed, including market regulation, corporate governance, and contractual structure to ensure the quality of the self regulatory regime; the governance structure of RSPO as the private regulatory institution, the incentive structure of the private regulatory regime, and its impact on the formal legal system. The general assumption of the study is that, despite their voluntary nature, private standards have a trade protectionist effect that restrict market access, in addition to the notion that the dominant market player can influence market-driven regulation more easily. The study finds that RSPO serves as a complementary institution to advance the sustainable palm oil agenda. In the implementation, RSPO has shaped the development of Indonesia’s national legislation, most notably in the establishment of the government-backed mandatory standard of ISPO. In this regard, RSPO must be viewed as a system connected with the existing national legal system, with which RSPO can co-exist, collaborate, or compete.

A hybrid health service accreditation program model incorporating mandated standards and continuous improvement: interview study of multiple stakeholders in Australian health care.

The study aim was to investigate the understandings and concerns of stakeholders regarding the evolution of health service accreditation programs in Australia. Stakeholder representatives from programs in the primary, acute and aged care sectors participated in semi-structured interviews. Across 2011-12 there were 47 group and individual interviews involving 258 participants. Interviews lasted, on average, 1 h, and were digitally recorded and transcribed. Transcriptions were analysed using textual referencing software. Four significant issues were considered to have directed the evolution of accreditation programs: altering underlying program philosophies; shifting of program content focus and details; different surveying expectations and experiences and the influence of external contextual factors upon accreditation programs. Three accreditation program models were noted by participants: regulatory compliance; continuous quality improvement and a hybrid model, incorporating elements of these two. Respondents noted the compatibility or incommensurability of the first two models. Participation in a program was reportedly experienced as ranging on a survey continuum from "malicious compliance" to "performance audits" to "quality improvement journeys". Wider contextual factors, in particular, political and community expectations, and associated media reporting, were considered significant influences on the operation and evolution of programs. A hybrid accreditation model was noted to have evolved. The hybrid model promotes minimum standards and continuous quality improvement, through examining the structure and processes of organisations and the outcomes of care. The hybrid model appears to be directing organisational and professional attention to enhance their safety cultures. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Increasing compliance with national quality measures for stroke through use of a standard order set.

Results of a study to determine the impact of physician use of a medication order set on compliance with national quality standards for acute stroke treatment are presented. The medical records of adult patients treated for ischemic stroke at three certified primary stroke centers within a large healthcare system were retrospectively reviewed to assess compliance with eight mandatory standards of care. Overall adherence to the standards and rates of compliance with individual standards were compared in random samples of patients treated with or without physician use of an order set providing guidance on acute stroke pharmacotherapy and other aspects of stroke management. Treatment records indicated use of the acute stroke order set in 58% of the 120 patient cases reviewed. Individual patients who were treated without physician use of the order set were more than twice as likely as those in the comparator group to receive care that was not in compliance with at least one of the eight mandatory quality standards (odds ratio, 2.4; 95% confidence interval, 1.43-4.05; p < 0.001). Use of the order set was associated with significantly improved adherence to three standards: venous thromboembolism prophylaxis, stroke education, and statin therapy at discharge. A retrospective review of the treatment records of patients hospitalized for acute stroke showed that adherence to national guidelines was increased when providers used a standard order set.

Aspects of the Health Inspection Authority in the People's Republic of China.

BackgroundIn China, there was a pressing need to establish a governmental agency to oversee the organizations that provide public health and medical services. The Chinese Health Inspection Authority (HIA), a relatively independent organization functioning at each administrative level (provincial, municipal, and county), was mandated to conduct 11 health inspection functions to maintain efficient public health and medical services. These functions include issuing health permit, conducting health supervision and inspection, health testing and evaluation, case investigation, complaint handling, managing public health crisis, monitoring and safeguarding public health at major public events, enforcing supervision and inspection compliance, public health education, information management, and team training and management. Since the reform of the health inspection system by the Ministry of Health in 2000, the HIA underwent a series of changes and transitions. This study aimed to describe and assess the five factors that were considered to be important for meeting service delivery objectives of the HIA in the People’s Republic of China.MethodsA total of 604 HIAs, sampled across three geographical regions of China at three administrative levels, participated in a cross-sectional survey conducted in 2013. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the status of mandated operations, manpower, revenue and expenditures, and institutional infrastructure. Differences in these characteristics across the geographical regions and administrative levels were compared.ResultsOn average, the HIAs had not fully implemented the 11 mandated functions at any administrative levels. Governmental financial allocations were the main sources of revenue. Three primary personnel employment models coexisted and most employed the quasi-civil service employment model. The institutional infrastructure did not meet governmental mandated standards with respect to building area or the number and types of equipment available to conduct key functions.ConclusionsIn 2012, the majority of the HIAs in China at the provincial, municipal, and county levels did not meet the mandated requirements, although positive indications toward meeting these requirements were observed. It is necessary for the government to pay more attention to institutional resources (buildings, equipment, and the level of the staff’s educational attainment) and ensure that the HIAs can meet their service delivery objectives.

THE LIMITS OF IRRATIONALITY AS A RATIONALE FOR REGULATION

THE LIMITS OF IRRATIONALITY AS A RATIONALE FOR REGULATION

Elusive corporate social responsibility (CSR) in global shipping

Purpose – This paper aims to, using the example of the highly globalised shipping industry, shed light upon the practice of corporate social responsibility (CSR) and the extent to which it might be relied upon to fill international regulatory gaps. Design/methodology/approach – The paper draws upon findings from a questionnaire study of shipboard accommodation. Findings – The paper finds that seafarers’ welfare remains under-considered by many companies. It suggests that the consolidation of regulation pertaining to seafarer living conditions under the Maritime Labour Convention (MLC) has been timely. However, a priority for the international community should be to develop the relatively low standards currently required by existing regulation to provide for better standards of seafarer welfare across the global fleet. Research limitations/implications – This evidence from the shipping industry challenges arguments for the normative basis for CSR and lends weight to those suggesting that the apparent exercise of CSR by multinational companies should broadly be understood as an exercise in public relations. Social implications – The research points to the need for the MLC to be amended to raise the mandatory standards of shipboard accommodation in the merchant shipping industry. Originality/value – The paper contributes unique data on seafarers’ living conditions and augments the body of knowledge concerning the exercise of CSR in global sectors.

Effectiveness of Energy Efficiency Standards and Labeling Requirements: The Case of Air Conditioners in Japan, Thailand, China and India

This chapter evaluates whether standards and labeling programs aimed at improving the energy efficiency of electrical appliances have been successful at achieving their goals. Standards and labeling programs work to reduce energy consumption by (a) influencing consumers’ choice of appliance and (b) inducing manufacturers to improve the energy efficiency of their products. In Most middle- and high-income countries first introduced mandatory minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) and/or multi-grade labeling and then added high energy performance standards (HEPS) that upgraded those standards. Analysis of product-level data for the air conditioner markets in Japan, Thailand, India and China yielded the following findings: (1) Standards and labeling programs appear to be effective at changing energy efficiency levels in the marketplace. There has been a clear improvement in the energy efficiency of air conditioners, measured by such indexes as coefficient of performance (COP), energy efficiency ratio (EER) and annual performance factor (APF) in Japan. (2) More energy-efficient products are priced higher in Japan and India. (3) Japan succeeded in reducing electricity consumption from air conditioners by one-half, but neither Thailand nor China succeeded in curbing electricity consumption. Appropriate fine-tuning of policy instruments is necessary to effectively reduce electricity use by air conditioners. An example is the introduction of a rule-based mechanism to revise minimum efficiency standards regularly. Cross-country harmonization of regulatory methods, such as methods to measure energy efficiency and revise efficiency standards, may also be beneficial.

The characteristics of Portuguese management academics and their fit with teaching accreditation standards

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the debate on the quality and accreditation of management education by examining the fit between the characteristics of current management academics in Portugal and recognised accreditation standards. For purposes of comparison, the authors use both general Portuguese teaching accreditation standards and specific international standards for management education. Design/methodology/approach – The authors analyse indicators of staff career positioning, tenure status, full time vs part-time, age, degree qualifications, field of training, level of academic inbreeding, internationalisation, research activity, professional activity, and the number of hours taught per week. The authors also examine the relationship between them, in light of accreditation standards, for all academic staff teaching in management degrees submitted for compulsory accreditation by the Portuguese accreditation agency. Findings – The reality found in this study shows gaps between the actual attributes of management academics and what can be considered appropriate attributes, according to the general consensus found in the literature and which is duly mirrored in common “qualified faculties” accreditation standards by Portuguese and international standards (AACSB, AMBA and EQUIS). Research limitations/implications – The findings relate to the Portuguese situation and the analysis developed should be extended to other contexts. Also, while the data, which were collected through a census, has a wide national scope, it only covers one academic year. Practical implications – This work has policy setting implications for degree accreditation and for developing capacity during the transitional periods when universities implement the mandatory minimum standards. It can also help universities to benchmark themselves against their peers as a diagnostic tool for elaborating improvement plans. Social implications – The massification of higher education has led to legitimate concerns about the quality of the services provided, and consequently accreditation procedures were devised to restore trust. However, policy makers must be aware of the impacts of their actions, namely the effects of degree accreditation, as their goals need to be achieved with the minimum negative impact on academic work. Originality/value – The authors work sheds light on the characteristics of those who teach management and how they align with the current accreditation policies that affect academia globally and, in the process, presents empirical evidence from Portugal, which is at a relatively early stage in the accreditation process.