Mandatory Standards Research Articles

Grundsätze für die Evaluation telemedizinischer Anwendungen – Ergebnisse eines systematischen Reviews und Konsens-Verfahrens

BackgroundThe limited number of telemedicine applications being transferred to standard medical care in Germany may to some extent be explained by deficits in the current evaluation practice. Effectiveness and cost effectiveness can only be demonstrated to decision makers and potential users with methodologically sound and fully published evaluations. There is a lack of well-founded and mandatory standards for adequate, comparable evaluations of telemedicine applications. MethodsAs part of the project CCS Telehealth Eastern Saxony (CCS THOS), a systematic review on evaluation concepts for telemedicine applications (search period until September 2014, databases Medline, Embase, HTA-Database, DARE, NHS EED) as well as an additional selective literature search were conducted. Suggestions for evaluation fundamentals were derived from the results. These suggestions were subjected to a formal consensus process (nominal group process) with relevant stakeholder groups (healthcare payers, healthcare providers, health policy representatives, researchers). Results19 papers were included in the systematic review. In accordance with the predefined inclusion criteria, each presented an evaluation concept for telemedicine applications that was based upon a systematic review and/or a consensus process. Via a formal consensus process, the suggestions for evaluation principles derived from the review and the selective literature search (23 papers) resulted in ten agreed evaluation principles. Eight of them were unanimously agreed upon, two were arrived at with one abstention each. The principles enclose criteria for the planning, conduct and reporting of telemedicine evaluations. Adherence to them is obligatory for users of the telemedical infrastructure provided by CCS THOS. Furthermore, right from the beginning the intention was very much for these principles to be seized upon by other projects and initiatives. ConclusionsThe agreed evaluation principles for telemedicine applications are the first in Germany to be based both upon evidence and consensus. Due to the methodology of development, they have a strong scientific and health policy legitimation. Therefore, and because of their general applicability, adherence to these principles beyond the context of the telemedicine platform developed within CCS THOS is recommended, namely throughout the German telemedicine scene.

The central bank's role in payment system development

Central banks have traditionally acted as real-time gross settlement (RTGS) operators for interbank settlement, as well as overseers of critical financial market infrastructure. The importance of electronic retail payments has grown substantially during the past decade. This has meant a redefinition of critical payment systems and has also brought important retail payment systems under oversight. To promote efficiency, in some cases, central banks have also acted as a catalyst for new payment systems. We argue that digitalisation, financial integration and excess inertia in the market demand a more active role by central banks than the one hitherto adopted. Setting mandatory standards, accreditation of solutions, shared technical infrastructure with retail payment systems and even issuing electronic cash should be considered to ensure that the smooth operation of payment systems continues in future. The scope of this paper is European.

Standardized residency programs in China: perspectives on training quality.

There have been momentous changes in graduate medical education in China in the past few years. While the standardization of residency training programs has been a topic of national conversation for decades, the Chinese Medical Association under the commission of the Ministry of Health released mandatory residency training standards in 2012.1 The training standards were divided into four sections for each specialty: training objectives, rotation length requirements, training content, and reference material. The vast majority of its pages, however, were devoted to training content, which consisted of a list of diseases and skills to master for each specialty. At the end of 2014, 8,500 residency programs had been established in 559 hospitals enrolling 55,000 resident physicians.2 The Chinese government implemented a plan for the nationwide initiation of 3-year standardized residency training programs beginning 2015.3 The government has stated that by 2020, any physician applying for clinical work must have completed training in one of these new residency programs. These changes affect the health of a fifth of the world’s population and may interest medical educators who wish to advance international educational practices. Before the implementation of standardized national residency training, there were many residency programs being piloted. A survey of trainees and faculty from randomly selected hospitals in China in 2006 found that trainees and faculty perceived their residency programs for the most part met basic global standards for postgraduate medical education.4 However, some of the leading programs reported inadequate supervision,5 unstandardized teaching,6 and wide variations in the use of case discussions.7 A Chinese literature review concluded that the existing training processes suffered from a lack of standardization across different training hospitals.8 Despite the initiation of national standardization of residency programs and curricula in the most populous country in the world, there has been no published literature in English describing these programs. Therefore we sought to understand residents’ perceptions of their training programs at a teaching hospital in a provincial capital in China, regarding program organization, quality of clinical teaching, and teaching of competencies. We report here the lessons we learned from our surveys of the residents. Program organization Residents noted important limitations to the organization of their training programs. While regular case discussions were present, they most often occurred only once a week or less, which is likely too infrequent to provide an environment conducive to learning, especially since rounds are often teacher-centered and involve passive learning for the residents.9 Even less frequent were journal clubs, which can be an invaluable resource to counteract uncritical attitudes toward medical tradition by encouraging trainees to appraise evidence-based recommendations for changes to current standards of practice.10 Furthermore, not having access to previous performance evaluations, as reported by more nearly half of the residents, denied resident trainees the opportunity to critically evaluate their approach to learning.

Developing a Deeper Understanding of Community-Based Pedagogies With Teachers

Here we share findings from a 9-month qualitative case study involving a school–university professional development inquiry into how teachers develop, implement, and interpret community-based pedagogies (CBPs), an asset-based approach to curriculum that acknowledges mandated standards but begins with recognizing and valuing local knowledge. After describing the structure and activities of the professional development project, we focus on the work and perspectives of four teachers at one public school in Bogotá. The challenges identified were outweighed by the benefits, including increased student engagement, motivation, family–school involvement, and an appreciation of local knowledge as curriculum resource. In addition to generating rich curriculum exemplars in chemistry, social studies, and language arts, the teachers’ interpretations and enactments of CBPs indicate that CBPs are flexible enough to allow multiple entry points, teacher autonomy, and ownership, and share enough commonalities with other pedagogical approaches to allow different learning trajectories for teachers and students.

The framing of Australian childcare policy problems and their solutions

Using discursive policy analysis, we analyse recent Australian childcare policy reform. By examining the policy framings of two successive governments and a childcare union, we demonstrate how the value of care work was strategically positioned by each of the three actors, constructing differing problems with different policy solutions. We argue that women’s care work was recognised by one government as valuable and professional when it aligned with an educational investment framing of enhanced productivity. This framing was capitalised upon by a union campaign for ‘professional’ wages, resulting in a government childcare worker wage subsidy. However, prior to implementation, a change of government re-framed the problem. The new government cast mandatory quality standards as placing unnecessary financial pressure on families and business. Within this frame, the remedy was to instead subsidise employer staff-development costs without increasing workers’ wages.

An Intervention to Increase Availability of Healthy Foods and Beverages in New York City Hospitals: The Healthy Hospital Food Initiative, 2010-2014.

BackgroundHospitals serve millions of meals and snacks each year; however, hospital food is often unhealthy. Hospitals are ideal settings for modeling healthy eating, but few programs have sought to improve nutrition in all venues where food is served.Community ContextThe New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene created the Healthy Hospital Food Initiative (HHFI) to improve the healthfulness of food served in hospitals. The HHFI built on prior work implementing mandatory nutrition standards for patient meals and vending in public hospitals. Public hospitals joined the HHFI by voluntarily adopting standards for cafeterias and cafés. Private hospitals joined by implementing nutrition standards for patient meals, food and beverage vending machines, and cafeterias and cafés.MethodsHospitals were recruited from 2010 through 2014 and provided technical assistance from health department staff. Implementation in each of the 4 areas was monitored through on-site assessments and menu review. Twenty-eight hospital cafeterias and cafés were evaluated at baseline and at the end of the HHFI to assess changes.OutcomeSixteen public hospitals and 24 private hospitals joined the HHFI. Most (n = 18) private hospitals implemented standards in at least 2 areas. In cafeterias, most hospitals introduced a healthy value meal (n = 19), removed unhealthy items from the entrance and checkout (n = 18), increased whole grains to at least half of all grains served (n = 17), and reduced calories in pastries and desserts (n = 15).InterpretationMost New York City hospitals joined the HHFI and voluntarily adopted rigorous nutrition standards. Partnerships between hospitals and local government are feasible and can lead to significant improvements in hospital food environments.

Moving National Breastfeeding Policies into Practice: A Plea to Integrate Lactation Education and Training into Nutrition and Dietetics Programs in the United States.

In 2011, the Surgeon General's Call to Action to Support Breastfeeding called on all health professional organizations, medical schools, and credentialing boards to establish and incorporate minimum lactation education and training requirements into their credentialing, licensing, and certification processes and to include breastfeeding education in undergraduate and graduate education and training programs. Given the commonalities between the fields of nutrition and breastfeeding, it has been proposed that nutrition professionals are an underutilized resource in the field of lactation management. Considering the lack of breastfeeding knowledge and skills among health professionals, nutrition professionals should be afforded opportunities to learn lactation management during their studies. The United States Breastfeeding Committee published Core Competencies in Breastfeeding Care and Services for All Health Professionals in 2010. However, professional nutrition and lactation credentialing boards should cooperate to integrate mandatory minimum standards of lactation education for nutrition professionals. Undergraduate and graduate programs in nutrition and dietetics should incorporate lactation content into their core curricula to comply with such standards. In addition, dietetics programs should offer optional clinical lactation experiences for students who aspire to become an International Board Certified Lactation Consultant.

Incidencia del nuevo marco normativo de auditoría en el ejercicio de la revisoría fiscal en Colombia

La globalización de la economía es el pilar que detonó la implementación de estándares contables y de aseguramiento de la información financiera de aceptación mundial en Colombia, quien en aras de iniciar el proceso de convergencia, tuvo que modificar su legislación, expidiendo normas de obligatorio cumplimiento, lo cual significa un reto para los contadores públicos, especialmente a quienes se desempeñan como revisores fiscales. Este artículo es de tipo descriptivo, su análisis se basó en la recolección de datos, a través de encuestas y la metodología utilizada es la revisión bibliográfica. La población sobre la que se ha hecho el estudio la conforman todos los contadores públicos en Colombia y la muestra está constituida por cinco profesionales de este gremio que ejercen como Revisores Fiscales. Para desarrollar el trabajo se recurrió a fuentes secundarias, tales como: libros, tesis y documentos relacionados con normatividades enfocados al ejercicio de la revisoría fiscal y a las NIA (Normas Internacionales de Auditoría) y además se acudió a fuentes primarias, tales como encuestas, a las cuales se les realizó un análisis exploratorio de datos que permitieron lograr el objetivo, que consistía en describir la incidencia de la obligatoriedad de la implementación del nuevo marco normativo de auditoría en el ejercicio de la Revisoría Fiscal en Colombia. Con los resultados obtenidos en esta investigación, se puede concluir que la Revisoría Fiscal como figura generadora de confianza pública, debe prepararse y capacitarse para cumplir con las exigencias, pues habrá cambios importantes que impactarán en el ejercicio de su profesión.

Targeted Efficiency Optimisation for Gasoline Engines

The European Union’s mandatory CO2 standards for new passenger cars in 2009 set a 2015 target of 130 g/km for the fleet average of all manufacturers combined, which was met in 2013, with average EU fleet emissions amounting to 129 g/km. Individual manufacturers are allowed a higher CO2 emission value, depending on the average vehicle weight of their fleet. The heavier the average weight of the cars sold by a manufacturer, the higher the CO2 level allowed. Figure 1 shows that in order to meet the future EU emissions regulations, significant increases in gasoline engine efficiency will have to be realised. Open image in new window FIGURE 1 European CO2 targets and the derived average fuel consumptions resulting from efficiency improvements for the C- and D- vehicle segments for European passenger car markets for the intervals 2015-2021 and 2021-2025 (© FEV) Based on two representative vehicles from the C- and D-segment, which meet the present day CO2 targets, it can be demonstrated that there is a need to improve efficiency for the intervals 2015 to 2021 and 2021 to 2025. The CO2 targets of the two vehicles have been converted to specific fuel consumption targets for each of comparison. The common reduction measures — reduction in vehicle mass, reduction of rolling resistance — and electrification of the powertrain (Micro-HEV, Mild-HEV, HEV) are already considered. — In a C-Segment vehicle, the engine is allowed a maximum average fuel consumption of 256 g/kWh in 2021 and for 2025 it should be 223 g/kWh (Micro-HEV). — In a D-Segment vehicle, the engine is allowed a maximum average fuel consumption of 238 g/kWh in 2021 and for 2025 it should be 213 g/kWh (Micro-HEV). The specification of such an average fuel consumption map is readily comparable across different driving cycles and therefore provides a simple way of evaluating the various technologies in a wide scope. In contradiction, the use of micro-hybridisation to advance electrification of the gasoline engine, allows a slight increase in the maximum allowable average Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC); but the Micro-HEV must be increasingly used in the new fleet of vehicles [3]. In the analysis presented here, a three-cylinder and a four-cylinder gasoline engine are considered: — 1.0-l three-cylinder turbocharged gasoline engine with direct injection, capable of 200 Nm and 90 kW — 1.6-l four-cylinder turbocharged gasoline engine with direct injection, capable of 250 Nm and 115 kW. Both engines are turbocharged and equipped with direct fuel injection and have intake and exhaust cam phasers. Figure 2 shows the full engine operating range of the 1.0-l- and 1.6-l engines with focus on fuel consumption in the New European Drive Cycle (NEDC) and Worldwide Harmonized Light-Duty Vehicles Test Procedure (WLTP) driving cycles for the C- and D-segment vehicles. Open image in new window FIGURE 2 Engine operating range of the 1.0-l and 1.6-l engines with focus on fuel consumption (marked with red/gray outline) on the NEDC and WLTP driving cycles for the C- and D-segment vehicles (© FEV) Comparing the individual engine maps in Figure 2, it is clear to see that the average fuel consumption would be highly influenced by the different driving cycles and target vehicles. Especially when considering the high load WLTP-H (WLTP with highest vehicle mass) cycle, extended areas of the engine map will also need to be optimised. Technologies with efficacy in broad regions of the engine map will definitively have an advantage. To this effect, the next section will analyse the effectiveness of the individual fuel consumption reduction technologies.

Worldwide Usage of International Classification of Primary Care

To describe the worldwide use of the International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC) and other classifications in primary care settings and to identify details of ICPC use in each country. Methods: A research survey with a questionnaire requiring self-completion was emailed to members of the WONCA International Classification Committee (WICC) and family physicians (FP) from each country recognized by the United Nations (UN). Results: We obtained the e-mail addresses of representatives from 109 countries and received 61 responses (out of 259 requests sent) to the questionnaire from 52 different countries; 30 were obtained from Europe, 8 from Asia, 7 from America, 6 from Africa, and 1 from Oceania. In 34 countries (17%), a version of ICPC was available in a national language. ICPC was used in primary care setting in 27 countries (14%), but it was a mandatory standard in only 6 (3%). Assessment of the topics accounted for in the clinical records showed that 10 countries used ICPC to classify the patient’s reasons for encounter and diagnosis, while just 5 countries used ICPC to classify the patient’s reasons for encounter, diagnosis, and processes of care. Of the 24 countries responding that the use of ICPC for clinical records was not promoted in primary care, 19 used the 10th edition of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), 3 used other classifications, and 2 did not use any classification. Conclusions: Although the response rate to the questionnaire was low, we concluded that ICPC use is not widespread globally. Even for those countries reporting the use of ICPC in primary care, it is usually not a mandatory standard.

Cancer-related fatigue: appraising evidence-based guidelines for screening, assessment and management.

There is inconsistent management of cancer-related fatigue (CRF) by health professionals worldwide. This research aims to identify the most appropriate guidelines for the management of cancer-related fatigue. A systematic search of international literature identified evidence-based clinical practice guidelines for CRF. Four reviewers independently appraised the highest quality guidelines using the AGREE-II instrument and National Heath and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) guideline standards. Five guidelines met the inclusion criteria. Of these, the 2015 Canadian Association of Psychosocial Oncology (CAPO) CRF guidelines and the 2014 American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) fatigue guidelines for cancer survivors were selected for in-depth appraisal. The CAPO guideline scored higher than the ASCO for five domains of the AGREE-II. For one domain, the differences were statistically significant (p≤0.05). The CAPO guideline met 37 of 47 NHMRC mandatory guideline standards and the ASCO guideline met 20. The difference in the proportion of standards met was statistically significant for one domain (p≤0.05). Both guidelines had low scores for applicability and implementation. Currently, the CAPO guideline for cancer-related fatigue has the strongest evidence for use. To enhance implementation, further strategies for guideline dissemination and application are needed.

European Pharmacopoeia: An Optimal Guarantee For The Quality Of Herbals

The European Pharmacopoeia (Ph Eur) lays down mandatory quality and standards for the production and control of medicines in Europe. The standards of the Ph Eur are elaborated, permanently updated and revised by the Group of Experts such as the Phytochemistry Groups 13A and 138 and the TCM Working Party.

Mandatory Standards and Organizational Information Security

Mandatory security standards that force firms to establish minimum levels of security controls are enforced in many domains, including information security. The information security domain is characterized by multiple intertwined security controls, not all of which can be regulated by standards, but compliance with existing security standards is often used by firms to deflect liability if a security breach occurs. We analyze a stylized setting where a firm has two security controls that are linked in either a serial or a parallel configuration. One control is directly regulated by a security standard, whereas the other one is not. We show that a higher security standard does not necessarily lead to a higher firm security. Furthermore, the conditions under which a higher standard hurts the firm security are sharply different in the two—serial and parallel—configurations. If standard compliance leads to reduced liability for a firm following a breach, such liability reduction in turn weakens the tie between the standard and firm security. Under a setting in which the firm meets the optimal standard set by a policy maker, both firm security and social welfare are higher when the damage to the firm following a breach takes a higher share of the total damage to social welfare, and also when the firm takes a larger share of liability.

Iodine Concentration in Iodized Salts Marketed in Lorestan Province, West of Iran

Iodine as a trace micronutrient has important role in body physiology and its sufficient intake is essential for synthesize and secrete adequate amounts of thyroid gland hormones which influenced all periods of human life including fetal, childhood and adolescence. The aim of this study was to evaluate iodine concentration in marketed edible salt samples in Lorestan Province, comparing with existing standards and offering solutions necessary to fix the probably problems . Two hundred and forty samples of 20 brands of marketed edible salt were purchased randomly of eight cities in Lorestan Province during April 2014 to March 2015. Iodine concentration was measured by titration method. Results showed that iodine concentration in 64.59% of salt samples was in acceptable limits according national standard of Iran during this study. A significant number of nonstandard samples showed violation of salt factories of regulations and their noncompliance to mandatory standards. Due to importance of iodine in human health and valuable role in the vital functions of the body at different periods of human life and to avoid violations of iodized salts manufacturers, regular control of marketed salts and enforcement of laws and regulations are recommended. aflatoxin production in treated nuts.

The Present and Future Energy Performance of the First Passivhaus Project in the Gulf Region

With voluntary and mandatory energy performance standards now becoming more common around the world, schemes to develop low energy buildings have become more apparent in developed countries. The Passivhaus standard, established 25 years ago in Germany, is one the most stringent and promising low energy building standards in Europe. It started as a construction concept applied to residential buildings, but has since spread as a voluntary ultra-low energy efficient standard to different parts of the world. Qatar, a member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states, announced in 2013 the completion of the first Passivhaus project in the Gulf Region. The current and future performance of the Passivhaus project in Qatar was investigated in this study using current and future climate scenarios. Computer modelling was used to simulate the energy performance of the house and the thermal comfort of the occupants. In addition, on-site measurements were made to corroborate the modelling outcomes. Further, the impacts of climate change on the Passivhaus project was examined, and comparative analyses were undertaken. The findings suggested that the Passivhaus performs well under the current and the future weather data sets. Furthermore, the modelling indicates that the Qatar house is close to achieving the Passivhaus standard.

Standard-compliant development of a design value for wood–plastic composite cladding: An application-oriented perspective

Bio-based materials, such as wood–plastic composites (WPC), have gained the interest of the resource-intensive building industry. Presently, this novel composite is being used in decking and cladding. The structural design of façades made from WPC compounds, however, has been difficult in the past due to a lack of design principles and experience.In this case study a design concept is developed, which combines material attributes describing the strength loss of the material due to different weathering processes on façades. Although this approach is widely used for approvals of cladding kits in Central Europe, it has not yet been used for WPCs. This paper is unique because for the first time research findings taken from a literature review on WPC attributes are used to obtain a realistic WPC design value for engineered façades. Simulations of WPC aging in three main categories predicted a strength loss of approximately 50% compared to the virgin material. Nevertheless, a WPC material design value which includes the effects of material aging is still useful for a façade planner’s practical work in view of the mandatory codes and standards in this field.

Comparative Evaluation of a South Carolina Policy to Improve Nutrition in Child Care

BackgroundPolicies to promote healthy eating in young children appear promising, but are largely untested. Recently, South Carolina implemented mandatory nutrition standards governing child-care centers serving low-income children. ObjectiveThis study evaluated consistency with the standards before and after the policy took effect. DesignThis study evaluated consistency with the nutrition standards in South Carolina, using North Carolina—a state not making policy changes—as the comparison. The research team conducted assessments in a longitudinal sample of centers and a cross-sectional sample of children before and approximately 9 months after the standards took effect. Participants/settingTrained observers recorded foods and beverages served to 102 children from 34 centers in South Carolina and 90 children from 30 centers in North Carolina at baseline. At follow-up, the research team observed 99 children from 33 centers in South Carolina and 78 children from 26 centers in North Carolina. InterventionThe policy was implemented in April 2012 and included 13 standards governing the nutritional quality of foods and beverages served to children, and staff behaviors related to feeding children in care. Main outcome measuresThe outcome was consistency with each standard at follow-up in South Carolina compared with North Carolina, controlling for baseline consistency and other covariates. Statistical analyses performedLogistic regressions were conducted to evaluate consistency with each standard, adjusting for baseline and potential confounders. ResultsCompared with North Carolina, centers in South Carolina were more likely to be consistent with the standard prohibiting the use of food as a reward or punishment (odds ratio=1.22; 95% CI 1.11 to 1.61; P=0.03). Two centers in South Carolina met all 13 standards at follow-up compared with none in North Carolina. No other differences were observed. ConclusionsNew standards modestly improved nutrition practices in South Carolina child-care centers, but additional support is needed to bring all centers into compliance with the current policies.

ADOPCIÓN DE SISTEMAS DE GESTIÓN DE ECODISEÑO EN LA INDUSTRIA QUÍMICA

Muchas practicas empresariales vigentes no son defendibles en terminos de desarrollo sostenible. En este escenario, el diseno se erige en pieza clave, pues influye en mas del 80% de los costes economicos relacionados con el producto, asi como en el 80% de los impactos ambientales y sociales asociados. Cabria entonces hablar del “ecodiseno” como el marco mas adecuado para concebir y desarrollar un producto teniendo en cuenta el medioambiente y los estandares de gestion de ecodiseno como las herramientas que facilitan la adopcion de nuevos modelos mas saludables en la operativa interna de la empresa. En este articulo se analizan las motivaciones, el proceso de adopcion y los resultados obtenidos por las tres primeras empresas del sector quimico espanol que han adoptado, fruto de una reflexion en clave estrategica, el estandar de ecodiseno ISO 14006. Este sector es considerado como uno de los mas importantes y mas dinamicos de la Union Europea, pero tambien como un sector de alta presion ambiental e intensivo en el consumo de energia. Los resultados senalan que, a diferencia de lo que ocurre en otros sectores, en todos los casos analizados mas del 60% del impacto se concentra en la etapa de obtencion de substancias y fabricacion, por lo que las principales acciones de mejora adoptadas por las empresas se concentran en esta etapa. No obstante, el cliente otorga poco valor a las mejoras alcanzadas en el producto cuanto ello implica un aumento del precio de compra. Por otro lado, las empresas reclaman la necesidad de que las administraciones impongan normas de obligado cumplimiento que les incentiven a reducir los impactos ambientales de sus productos. Palabras clave: Ecodiseno, impacto ambiental, Analisis de Ciclo de Vida (ACV), Sistema de Gestion Ambiental, sector quimico

Industry attitudes towards ecodesign standards for improved resource efficiency

Current European regulations on producer responsibility provide limited incentives for ecodesign practices among manufacturers. Additional incentives for ‘design for resource efficiency’ and ‘design for recycling’ could be provided through mandatory design standards set under the Ecodesign Directive. While European manufacturers have become increasingly positive towards eco-design standards for energy efficiency, there is limited research on their attitudes towards standards related to resources and recycling. This contribution reviews current developments in European product policy and potential future ecodesign standards. Then the results of an interview study with people in Nordic industries are presented. The study is the first comprehensive interview study with industry related to new eco-design requirements to generate recycling and resource efficiency. Most interviewees were positive towards eco-design rules that improve product durability and enable more recycling, but less favorable towards requirements on recycled content, longer consumer guarantees, and requirements on ‘maximum disassembly time’. It appears as if manufacturers are especially negative towards requirements that are not possible to control through internal procedures but have supply chain implications, or where compliance is affected by consumer behavior. The study provides an insight into relevant concerns of industries, but policymakers need to be aware that historically manufacturers have always been concerned about new types of legal requirements as they create uncertainty in the market. As actors become more used to work with the new eco-design requirements, this uncertainty will decrease.

Decision-makings in safety investment: An opportunity cost perspective

This paper analyzes the factors influencing safety investment decisions by the government and enterprises from an opportunity cost perspective, which consists of shortage cost due to the occurrence of accidents and excess cost due to investing more than required for accident prevention. Analytical models are built by minimizing expected total opportunity costs. The result of government decision reveals that optimal government safety investments vary positively with unit shortage cost, while they vary inversely with unit excess cost. The mandatory safety investment level established by government for enterprises, which is exactly the same as the optimal government safety investment level, can compel the enterprise to invest more in safety measures when it is higher than the optimal enterprise safety investment level without the mandatory standard. Based on the analytical models, factors influencing safety investment decisions are analyzed through consideration of a case study of China. The results of the case study indicate that the ineffective administrative accountability system, performance appraisal system of local government and officials and government–enterprise relations all contribute to the high accident frequency in China by leading to a safety investment decision with a lower safety level, which also verify that the analytical models proposed in this paper are reasonable.