Mandarin Duck Research Articles

Molecular identification of Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Cryptosporidium, and Giardia in Brazilian captive birds.

A total of 85 fecal samples from captive birds collected from October 2013 to September 2014 in Uberlândia and Belo Horizonte in the state of Minas Gerais (Brazil) were evaluated for the presence of Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Cryptosporidium, and Giardia by PCR. Of these, three birds were found positive for E. bieneusi (3.5%), two for Cryptosporidium (2.3%), and one for Giardia (1.2%). Two genotypes of E. bieneusi were detected by nucleotide sequence analysis of the ITS region, genotypes D and Peru 6 in a swan goose and in two rock pigeons, respectively. For Cryptosporidium and Giardia, nucleotide sequence analysis of the SSU rRNA identified Cryptosporidium baileyi and Duck genotype in a swan goose and a mandarin duck, respectively, and Giardia duodenalis assemblage A in a toco toucon. Our results demonstrate that human-pathogenic E. bieneusi genotypes D and Peru6 and G. duodenalis assemblage A are present in captive birds in Brazil, corroborating their potential role as a source of human infection and environmental contamination.

Characterization of clade 2.3.4.4 H5N8 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses from wild birds possessing atypical hemagglutinin polybasic cleavage sites.

Since 2014, clade 2.3.4.4 H5 subtype highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) have been distributed worldwide. These viruses, which were reported to be highly virulent in chickens by intravenous inoculation, have a consensus HPAI motif PLRERRRKR at the HA cleavage site. However, two-clade 2.3.4.4 H5N8 viruses which we isolated from wild migratory birds in late 2014 in Japan possessed atypical HA cleavage sequences. A swan isolate, Tottori/C6, had a novel polybasic cleavage sequence, PLGERRRKR, and another isolate from a dead mandarin duck, Gifu/01, had a heterogeneous mixture of consensus PLRERRRKR and variant PLRERRRRKR sequences. The polybasic HA cleavage site is the prime virulence determinant of AIVs. Therefore, in the present study, we examined the pathogenicity of these H5N8 isolates in chickens by intravenous inoculation. When 106 EID50 of these viruses were intravenously inoculated into chickens, the mean death time associated with Tottori/C6 was substantially longer (>6.1days) than that associated with Gifu/01 (2.5days). These viruses had comparable abilities to replicate in tissue culture cells in the presence and absence of exogenous trypsin, but the growth of Tottori/C6 was hampered. These results indicate that the novel cleavage motif of Tottori/C6 did not directly affect the infectivity of the virus, but Tottori/C6 caused attenuated pathogenicity in chickens because of hampered replication efficiency. It is important to test for the emergence of diversified HPAIVs, because introduction of HPAIVs with a lower virulence like Tottori/C6 might hinder early detection of affected birds in poultry farms.

Goose Parvovirus and Circovirus Coinfections in Ornamental Ducks

Clinical observations and diagnostic procedures carried out to elucidate the cause of high mortality in 2-8-wk-old ornamental ducks (mandarin, wood, falcated, and silver teal ducks) are described. At necropsy, ducklings showed general pallor of skeletal and heart muscles, subcutaneous gelatinous transudates, pericarditis, ascites, and severe edema and hyperemia of lungs. Histopathologic examination revealed that the most important changes were located in the crop, bursa of Fabricius, and lungs with presence of amorphic basic intracytoplasmic inclusions. No bacteria or fungi could be detected from affected organs and ascitic fluid. Viral diagnosis included molecular detection for the presence of goose parvovirus (GPV), circovirus, avian influenza, herpesviruses, paramyxovirus, reovirus, and polyomavirus. Both GPV and circovirus could be detected by real-time PCR and nested broad-spectrum PCR, respectively. Phylogenetically, full-length nucleotide sequence of GPV showed a close similarity ranging from 95.6% to 97.9% with European and Asian pathogenic GPV. On the other hand, the detected circovirus showed nucleotide identity of 90% to 98% with goose circoviruses (GoCVs). This is the first report of GoCVs and GPV in ornamental ducks. The concurrence of GPV and GoCV infections is thought to contribute to the high mortality.

Kin-biased conspecific brood parasitism in a native Mandarin duck population

Conspecific brood parasitism (CBP) is a widespread female alternative reproductive tactic, where clutches tended by a single female contain eggs laid by different females. CBP is disproportionately common in waterfowl, where females, not males, exhibit natal philopatry. This raises the possibility that closely related females cooperate with each other for inclusive fitness benefits and may explain why females expend effort raising offspring that are not their own. Some studies show higher host–parasite relatedness than expected, while a similar number of studies fail to do so. Here we test the hypothesis that host and parasite are closely related in Mandarin ducks (Aix galericulata) to further our understanding of the role of host–parasite relatedness in the evolution of CBP. Using microsatellite markers, we found that more than 33.7 % of ducklings were parasites and that more than 70 % of nests contained parasitic offspring. Relatedness between host mother and parasitic ducklings was significantly higher than that of host mothers and ducklings in other nests, showing hosts were, on average, more related to their parasites than to other breeding females. There was a weak negative relationship between pairwise relatedness and distance between nests. However, distance did not contribute to the higher relatedness of host and parasite. Thus, host–parasite relatedness likely involved some form of kin recognition. Based on our results, relatedness plays a role in CBP in Mandarin ducks, though the explicit fitness benefits to both the host and the parasite still need to be determined.

Survival Explains Sex Ratio in an Introduced Mandarin DuckAix galericulataPopulation

Adult sex ratio in ducks is male-biased, probably due to higher mortality of incubating females. In an introduced population of Mandarin Ducks Aix galericulata in Berlin and Potsdam, adult sex ratio (proportion of males) was 0.65 (95% confidence interval 0.64–0.67). Annual apparent survival of 163 colour-ringed birds during 2003–2012 was 0.65 (0.55–0.76) for first year and 0.66 (0.60–0.72) for adult males, and 0.47 (0.25–0.69) for first year and 0.57 (0.48–0.66) for adult females. Female mortality but not male mortality peaked during the breeding season. A Leslie matrix model based on productivity and survival rates in the study population estimated an adult sex ratio of 0.64, or 0.67 when first-year birds were excluded. The similarity between observed adult sex ratio and model estimates based on survival suggests that the male-bias might be fully explained by sex differences in survival.

Range expansion of the Mandarin Duck Aix galericulata (Aves: Anseriformes: Anatidae) to the Lena River catchment, Siberia

Recently the Mandarin Duck Aix galericulata was observed beyond its known range of 60°N as pairs, individuals and small flocks along the upper and middle reaches of the Aldan River and its tributaries from spring to late autumn. Pairs and solitary males (all probably vagrant) were also recorded as far North as 61°-63°N. This species encounters appropriate habitats within the Prilenskoe Plateau, the Aldanskoe High Plateau, and the Yudomo-Mayiskoe High Plateau in the Lena River catchment, and can potentially breed within the extended range if the number in the Amur River basin increases .

Restoration of a Traditional Draw Loom and Representation of Blue Jik-geum Neung with Mandarin Ducks from the Goryeo Dynasty

Restoration of a Traditional Draw Loom and Representation of Blue Jik-geum Neung with Mandarin Ducks from the Goryeo Dynasty

オシドリ雄の雌への付き添い行動

During the breeding seasons from 2005 to 2014, 12 females of the Mandarin Duck Aix galericulata which used three nests were observed in Hokkaido, Japan. During the incubation period, females leaving their nests to forage in the early morning and the evening were often accompanied by males when returning to their nests. The male attendance finished from mid-May to mid-June, whereas the fledging dates fluctuated from late May to late June.

The complete mitochondrial genome of Aix galericulata and Tadorna ferruginea: bearings on their phylogenetic position in the Anseriformes.

Aix galericulata and Tadorna ferruginea are two Anatidae species representing different taxonomic groups of Anseriformes. We used a PCR-based method to determine the complete mtDNAs of both species, and estimated phylogenetic trees based on the complete mtDNA alignment of these and 14 other Anseriforme species, to clarify Anseriform phylogenetics. Phylogenetic trees were also estimated using a multiple sequence alignment of three mitochondrial genes (Cyt b, ND2, and COI) from 68 typical species in GenBank, to further clarify the phylogenetic relationships of several groups among the Anseriformes. The new mtDNAs are circular molecules, 16,651 bp (Aix galericulata) and 16,639 bp (Tadorna ferruginea) in length, containing the 37 typical genes, with an identical gene order and arrangement as those of other Anseriformes. Comparing the protein-coding genes among the mtDNAs of 16 Anseriforme species, ATG is generally the start codon, TAA is the most frequent stop codon, one of three, TAA, TAG, and T-, commonly observed. All tRNAs could be folded into canonical cloverleaf secondary structures except for tRNASer (AGY) and tRNALeu (CUN), which are missing the "DHU" arm.Phylogenetic relationships demonstrate that Aix galericula and Tadorna ferruginea are in the same group, the Tadorninae lineage, based on our analyses of complete mtDNAs and combined gene data. Molecular phylogenetic analysis suggests the 68 species of Anseriform birds be divided into three families: Anhimidae, Anatidae, and Anseranatidae. The results suggest Anatidae birds be divided into five subfamilies: Anatinae, Tadorninae, Anserinae, Oxyurinae, and Dendrocygninae. Oxyurinae and Dendrocygninae should not belong to Anserinae, but rather represent independent subfamilies. The Anatinae includes species from the tribes Mergini, Somaterini, Anatini, and Aythyini. The Anserinae includes species from the tribes Anserini and Cygnini.

Development of Avian External Genitalia: Interspecific Differences and Sexual Differentiation of the Male and Female Phallus

Avian genitalia, particularly in waterfowl, are extremely diverse. Penis morphology varies among species, and penis length and elaboration are associated with the frequency of forced extra-pair copulations, yet the developmental mechanisms responsible for this variation are unknown. In addition, females have a small phallic structure that is homologous to the male phallus, but little is known about when or how sexual differentiation takes place. To determine whether species-specific genital morphologies and sexual differentiation occur during duck embryonic development, we characterized development from the onset of genital tubercle initiation through stages of sexual differentiation in 3 species. Pekin and Laysan ducks have long, thick penises, whereas those of Mandarin ducks are shorter and thinner. Development of the genital tubercle is similar throughout the pre-hatching period across the 3 species, suggesting that differences in penis morphology arise post-hatching. We observed that male and female phallus development is similar at early stages, but the female phallus later regresses. Then, we compared male and female genital development between ducks and chickens, which develop a non-intromittent penis. We found that external genital development in male and female chickens resembles that of female ducks, which raises the possibility that male phallus development became feminized during galliform evolution.

Wenyi and the branding of early Chinese film

ABSTRACTThis article reviews the role of wenyi in Chinese cinema from the turn of the twentieth century to the breakout of the Sino-Japanese war in 1937. Wenyi/letters and arts, a loan word from the Japanese bungei, was associated with western fiction, and concepts of humanism, equality and freedom. These concepts were propagated by translators of Japanese and western literature, many of whom belonged to the Mandarin Ducks and Butterfly School and were key agents in the nascent culture industry, leaving their marks in intertwined fields, including literature and cinema. By tracing their crossover activities we find evidence of the fertility of the wenyi concept in early cinema. Furthermore, our findings show that in order to sell motion pictures, the early film industry tended to brand film as a new type of wenyi commodity, thereby mobilizing wenyi as a marketing strategy to help purvey movies to audiences with cosmopolitan aspirations.

Study on the Grading Method of Baekdudaegan in South Korea by the Avifauna

This study surveyed the avifauna in five areas of Baekdudaegan in South Korea, except for national parks or nature reserves, from 2007 to 2011. The results were as follows. The observed number of birds was 5,827 individuals of 92 species in total (Sum of maximum number of observation). II area (Dakmokryeong∼Gitdaegibong) had the most number of species (71 species) and individuals (1,831 individuals). On the other han, V area (Yuksimnyeong∼Yeowonjae) had the least number of species (40 species) and individuals (446 individuals). The major dominant birds were Fringilla montifringilla, Aegithalos caudatus, Emberiza elegans, Microscelis amaurotis, and Garrulus glandarius. The birds which wintered during the winter season and formed a colony were the major dominant birds. The species diversity was relatively high (3.60 in total). In particular, IV area (Hyeongjebong∼Satgatbong) was the highest (3.45) but V area was the lowest (2.93). The total of 11 species of the legally protected birds indicated by Cultural Heritage Administration or Ministry of Environment were observed, including Aix galericulata. Additionally, the natural monuments (8 species) and the second grade endangered birds (7 species) were observed. As a result of regional grading for each item, IV area (Hyeongjebong∼Satgatbong) was the highest with the score of 23. On the other hand, V area (Yuksimnyeong∼Yeowonjae) was the lowest with the score of 9. Since the result of the grading in this study was based on the Baekdudaegan areas excluding national parks or nature reserves, it is somewhat limited to make a comparison with the whole forest areas or nature reserves. For more reasonable grading for the future, it is suggested to conduct specific research which surveys the relatively large forests within the Baekdudaegan, such as national parks or nature reserves.

Characterization of Clade 2.3.2.1 H5N1 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Viruses Isolated from Wild Birds (Mandarin Duck and Eurasian Eagle Owl) in 2010 in Korea

Starting in late November 2010, the H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus was isolated from many types of wild ducks and raptors and was subsequently isolated from poultry in Korea. We assessed the genetic and pathogenic properties of the HPAI viruses isolated from a fecal sample from a mandarin duck and a dead Eurasian eagle owl, the most affected wild bird species during the 2010/2011 HPAI outbreak in Korea. These viruses have similar genetic backgrounds and exhibited the highest genetic similarity with recent Eurasian clade 2.3.2.1 HPAI viruses. In animal inoculation experiments, regardless of their originating hosts, the two Korean isolates produced highly pathogenic characteristics in chickens, ducks and mice without pre-adaptation. These results raise concerns about veterinary and public health. Surveillance of wild birds could provide a good early warning signal for possible HPAI infection in poultry as well as in humans.

The Problematic of “High (-Brow) Literature” and “Low (-Brow) Literature”: Some Thoughts on the Origins of Modern Chinese Literature

This paper discusses the criteria according to which literature is categorized as “high (-brow) literature” or “low (-brow) literature” in modern China. I suggest that these standards change over time and are intimately tied to the problematics of canonization, legitimization, and cultural hegemony. In modern China, the criteria are also closely related to class differentiation. Furthermore, I contend that, in the Chinese academic world, there is often a tendency to interpret certain forms of middle-brow literature as belletristic literature that breaks though the boundary between “high (-brow) literature” and “low (-brow) literature.” In discussing “middle-brow” literature in modern China, this paper takes “Mandarin Ducks and Butterfly” literature as the object of its analysis and proposes that middle-brow literature is essentially the moralization of political and social issues, which serves to displace social-economic and political concerns. This is usually accomplished through the glorification of conservative ethical-moral viewpoints.

Pathogenicity of an H5N1 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus Isolated in the 2010–2011 Winter in Japan to Mandarin Ducks

Widespread outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) caused by H5N1 viruses occurred in wild birds in Japan from 2010-2011. Forty out of 63 deceased wild birds belonged to the order Anseriformes, and mandarin duck was one of the dominant species. To estimate the risk of mandarin ducks as a source of virus infection in the environment, we examined the pathogenicity of a causal H5N1 HPAI virus to mandarin ducks. About half of the mandarin ducks died by inoculation with 10(7.0)TCID50 of A/mandarin duck/Miyazaki/22M807-1/2011 (H5N1). Viruses were mainly recovered from the trachea of the ducks sacrificed at three days post inoculation (d.p.i.). Viruses were recovered from the laryngopharyngeal swabs of the observation group until 5 d.p.i. In ducks that died at the late phase of infection, viruses were detected in the systemic organs, such as lung, kidney and colon. Together, these results showed that the H5N1 HPAI viruses, which belonged to clade 2.3.2.1 and are mainly circulating in East Asia, were lethal to mandarin ducks, indicating that mandarin ducks have the potential to disseminate the virus to other bird species. Therefore, wild birds should be kept out of poultry farms to prevent HPAI outbreaks in the future.

オシドリ雌の行動パターンから営巣木を発見する方法と巣立ち日予測に関して

オシドリ雌の行動パターンから営巣木を発見する方法と巣立ち日予測に関して

Heavy Metal Accumulations of 4 Species of Anseriformes in Korea

The study figured out the tendency of distribution of lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd), and compared and examined the heavy metal accumulations among species by measuring the heave metal accumulations in major organs (liver, muscle, kidney and bones) targeting 31 birds in 4 species(Cygnus cygnus, Anser albifrons, Aix galericulata and Anas formosa) of Anseriformes. Concentration of lead (Pb) in tissues was generally high in kidney (1.54 μg/wet g) or bones (5.94 μg/wet g), and concentration of cadmium (Cd) was generally high in kidney (0.474 μg/wet g) and low in muscles (0.019 μg/wet g). As shown above, there was no bird containing more than the standard amount of cadmium (Cd) among Anseriformes, but the study confirmed from 3 species (Cygnus cygnus, Anser albifrons, Aix galericulata and Anas formosa) containing lead at exposed levels and at poisoned levels. It is judged that the study result will be used as a comparing material for studies monitoring heavy metal of Anseriformes, a winter bird and a bio-indicator in an aquatic ecosystem and a basic material for reasonable environmental policy of lead shots and lead sinker in the future.

The School of Mandarin Duck and Butterfly’s Creative Push on Early Chinese Publishing Industry

The School of Mandarin Duck and Butterfly, as an early Chinese popular literature important school, is a participant of early Chinese publishing industry who promoted early Chinese publishing industry development through creativities on publishing from four aspects such as publishing content creativity, graphic design creativity, marketing creativity and cross-media industry creativity.

국내 야생 조류에서의 뉴캣슬병 바이러스 항체분포율 조사

본 연구는 국내에 서식하고 있는 야생 조류에서의 뉴캣슬 병바이러스(NDV) 감염 분포율을 조사하였다. 본 연구를 위하여 2011년 2월에서 11월에 걸쳐 포획한 8개 목 42종의 야생 조류 1,024수를 대상으로 NDV에 대한 혈청 검사를 혈구 응집 억제 반응법으로 실시하였다. 그 결과, 조사 대상 야생조류 중 12.6%(129/1,024)에서NDV 항체가 검출되었다. NDV 항체가 검출된 야생 조류는 기러기목의 6종(원앙, 청둥오리, 흰뺨검둥오리, 고방오리, 쇠기러기, 쇠오리)과 도요 목의 괭이갈매기였다. 이 중 원앙(27.8%, 32/115), 청둥오리(20.8%, 57/274), 흰뺨검둥오리(11.9%, 36/303)는 10% 이상 높은 항체양성률을 나타내었으며, 고방오리(2.9%, 1/34), 괭이갈매기(2.9%, 1/34), 쇠기러기(1.8%, 1/56), 쇠오리(1.4%, 1/69)는 3% 미만의 낮은 NDV 항체 양성률을 나타내었다. 그러나 나머지 6개목 35종의 야생 조류에서는 NDV 항체가 검출되지 않았다. 항체 양성률이 높은 원앙, 청둥오리, 흰뺨검둥오리를 대상으로 시기별 조사한 결과, 원앙의 경우 11월 25%(24/96), 2월 42%(8/19)의 항체 양성률을, 청둥오리의 경우 10월 33%(1/3), 11월 25%(26/104), 2월 21.1%(19/90), 3월 14.3%(11/77)의 항체 양성률을, 흰뺨검둥오리의 경우 10월 4.5%(2/44), 11월 12.2%(12/98), 2월 16.4%(9/55), 3월 12.3%(13/106)의 양성률을 보였다. 본 연구 결과는 국내에서 서식하는 원앙, 청둥오리, 흰뺨검둥오리 등 야생 오리류가 NDV의 주된 자연 숙주이며, NDV 감염은 10월과 11월 사이에 감염이 급증하기 시작하여 동절기 동안 순환 감염이 일어나는 계절적 특성을 보이는 있음을 나타낸다. Newcastle disease virus (NDV) infects a variety of birds with a wide range of clinical signs from asymptomatic to severe. During a 10-month period in 2011, a total of 1,024 sera from wild birds including 42 species of birds in 8 orders were collected and the seroprevalence of NDV in wild birds was evaluated by hemagglutination inhibition (HI) test. Evidence of NDV infection was observed in 12.6% (129/1,024) of wild birds with a maximum prevalence reported in Mandarin duck (27.8%, 32/115) followed by Mallard duck (20.8%, 57/274), Spot-billed duck (11.9%, 36/303), Pintail (2.9%, 1/34), Black-tailed gull (2.9%, 1/34), White-fronted goose (1.8%, 1/56) and Common teal (1.4%, 1/69). None of the other 35 species of wild birds were antibody-positive for NDV. Mandarin duck, Mallard duck and Spot-billed duck showed high sero-prevalance of 12.2% to 42% during winter season (November to March). Our results indicate that Mandarin duck, Mallard duck and Spot-billed duck might be natural reservoirs for NDV in Korea and the prevalence of NDV infection in wild birds displayed a seasonal pattern with high prevalence of NDV in winter season (November to March).

Distribution of Birds in the Jeju Seonheul Gotjawal Region, a Survey Site of Long-term Ecological Study

The study on the avifauna of the Seonheul Gotjawal region of Jeju-do (Is.), a survey site of long-term ecological study, was conducted between February of 2011 and January of 2012. A total of 54 species and 1,039 individuals of birds were observed, with 30 species and 164 individuals observed during spring, 31 species and 174 individuals during summer, 30 species and 206 individuals during fall and 28 species and 868 individuals during winter. In terms of dominant species, Mandarin Duck (Aix galericulata) was the most dominant at 500 individuals (48.12%), followed by Rook (Corvus frugilegus) at 250 individuals (24.06%), Black-billed Magpie (Pica pica) at 36 individuals (3.46%), Barn Swallow (Hirundo rustica) at 34 individuals (3.27%) and Great Tit (Parus major) and Japanese White-eye (Zosterops japonicus) at 26 individuals (2.50%) each. The overall species diversity was 1.95, with the value 2.69 during spring, 2.87 during summer, 2.81 during fall and 1.29 during winter. The species diversity was low during the winter, because Mandarin Duck (Aix galericulata) and Rook (Corvus frugilegus) were observed at a relative high level when compared to other species, at 500 individuals and 250 individuals respectively. Government protected species included 8 natural monument species, such as Mandarin Duck (Aix galericulata), Common Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus), Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus), Eurasian Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), Northern Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), Lesser Cuckoo (Cuculus poliocephalus) and Fairy Pitta (Pitta nympha), and 8 endangered species of Japanese Night Heron (Gorsachius goisagi), Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus), Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus), Crested Honey Buzzard (Pernis ptilorhychus), Northern Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), Eurasian Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), Fairy Pitta (Pitta nympha) and Black Paraside Flycatcher (Terpsiphone atrocaudata). Since subtropical birds, such as Japanese Night Heron (Gorsachius goisagi), White-bellied Green Pigeon (Treron sieboldii) and Chestnut-winged Cuckoo (Clamator coromandus) were observed during the study, there is a need for a continuous monitoring of their migratory pattern and breeding.