Protected Forest Management Research Articles

Evaluating the benefit of avalanche protection forest with GIS-based risk analyses—A case study in Switzerland

The protection of people, buildings and infrastructure against natural hazards is one of the key functions of mountain forests. Since the protective function strongly depends on small-scale local conditions such as terrain and stand characteristics, spatially explicit evaluation methods are necessary to provide information required for an effective and cost-efficient forest management. Risk analyses are recognized as the best method for estimating the danger from various natural hazards. Currently, however, risk-based strategies are rarely addressed in the management of protection forest. We present and discuss a risk-based approach to evaluate the protective effect of mountain forests in a spatially explicit manner to demonstrate the advantages of future risk-based protection forest management. We illustrate the approach by performing a GIS-based risk analysis in the case study area ‘Bannwald of Andermatt’ (Switzerland) for a 300-year snow avalanche event. Classifying forest structures based on aerial photographs allowed developing different forest cover scenarios and modeling potential avalanche release areas within the forest. Potential avalanche release areas above the forest and the avalanche run-out distances under five different scenarios of forest cover were calculated by using a two-dimensional avalanche simulation model. We calculated the annual collective risk for each scenario and compared the change in risk to reveal the spatial distribution of the protective effect of the forest. Resulting risks differed strongly between forest cover change scenarios. An enlargement of an existing wind-disturbed area within lower parts of the slope resulted only in a slight increase of risk. In contrast, the effect of an unforested area in the upper parts of the observed forest more than doubled the risk. These results show how a risk-based approach can help to quantify and illustrate the impact of differences in forest cover on the protective effect of mountain forests. It is a promising approach to determine the economic value of protection forests and thus provide quantitative and qualitative information for cost-efficient forest maintenance planning. With regard to the achievements of research to date, the presented approach may serve as a valuable method to support decision-making in a future protection forest management.

Actual Condition and Problems of Protected Forest Management as Source of Water Supply in National Forest : A Case Study on Private Contract Enterprises in Nagano Prefecture

Actual Condition and Problems of Protected Forest Management as Source of Water Supply in National Forest : A Case Study on Private Contract Enterprises in Nagano Prefecture

Forecasting hotspots of forest clearing in Kakamega Forest, Western Kenya

Kakamega Forest is the last remaining rainforest in Kenya and the easternmost remnant of the Guinean-Congolian rainforest belt. As such, it is home to a large number of endemic fauna and flora species. Yet the remaining natural forest is under imminent threat of degradation due to a rapidly growing population in its vicinity and a poverty rate far above the national average. The growing demand for forest resources and ecosystem services will continue to exert great pressure on the remaining forest fragments. In this paper, we predict future hotspots of forest clearing of the remaining natural and old-growth secondary forest in Kakamega Forest. We parameterized an artificial neural network model using resilient backpropagation to simulate the likelihood of forest clearing for each location. Input variables into the network included historic information on forest clearings together with variables capturing the status of forest protection, accessibility to roads and markets, as well as topography and forest density. Simulation results were used to predict future clearings based on observed rates of change. Hotspots of forest clearing were derived by assessing the neighborhood density of predicted clearings. Our results indicate that forest clearings occurred across all forest fragments. Hotspots of future forest clearing tended to occur near roads and market centers. Most future hotspots were found in areas with a lower protection status, where some forest use is allowed. But our model also predicted considerable pressure on remaining old-growth forest resources in the strictly protected National Reserve. Our predictions of deforestation hotspots contribute to a better geographic targeting of nature protection activities and forest management investments in Kakamega Forest. Thus, it will hopefully help policy makers and land managers to strike a balance between satisfying the needs of local livelihoods and preserving the unique ecological values of Kakamega Forest for future generations.

Simulation de la structure optimale des hêtraies de protection contre les chutes de pierres | Simulation of the optimal structure of beech forests protecting against rockfall

Adequate management practices to attain the profiles specified in the Swiss guidelines for the management of mountain protection forests are not always unequivocally clear. This applies among others for beech forests that have a protective function against rockfall. We defined two management scenarios, one of which aims at harvesting trees starting with a minimum diameter at breast height of 40 cm, whereas the other one is focused on the creation of small gaps (area of 500 m2) over a maximum of 10% of the total stand area. These scenarios along with a control scenario characterized by no management were studied using the forest growth model BWINPro. In the control scenario, number of trees, basal area and standing volume were highest. The developments simulated under the two management scenarios were similar, when in scenario thinning harvesting levels corresponded to the growth over a 10-year period. In the other cases, number of trees, basal area and standing volume are lower under scenario gap because harvesting interventions occur more regularly. If the rocks have a volume exceeding 0.2 m3, the requirements of the profiles are attained more quickly under scenario gap, because in scenario thinning the larger trees are preferentially harvested. Because tree regeneration was not simulated, it is difficult to realistically predict the development of the number of trees. However, management interventions are needed in such forests, particularly if the profile for rocks with a volume below 0.2 m3 is to be attained and maintained.

Kleinflächig spezialisierter, aber weiterhin multifunktionaler Schweizer Wald (Essay) | Typically patchy but multifunctional Swiss forest (essay)

Forests and forestry in the year 2050 may be described based on social, ecological and economical influence factors and their consequences. Increased pressure through human settlements and a polarized behaviour during leisure time both belong to social developments which are relevant to the forest. Furthermore, the benefits of a forest such as fresh air, clean water and free access may be assigned a monetary value in the future, whereas currently they are not. In the future, the ecological conditions may be strongly influenced by climate change. The Swiss forest as a whole is not currently in danger; however, pronounced climatic extremes may soon cause extended damage. As a result, the management of protection forests may become even more important. Economical developments such as the shortage of oil and the price increase of natural resources will have consequences for the forest management. Thus, the demand for wood as a source of energy and a substitute for other resources will increase. All these changes will increase the conflict of interests in the Swiss forest until the year 2050. This will lead to the fact that the various uses of the forest will be segregated more intensely and its multifunctionality will obtain a more important meaning on a higher level.

Adapting a growth equation to model tree regeneration in mountain forests

Management and risk analysis of protection forests depend on a reliable estimation of regeneration processes and tree growth under different site conditions. While the growth of forest stands and thus the average growth of larger trees is well studied and published in yield tables as well as embodied in numerous simulation models, there is still a lack of information about the crucial initial stages of tree growth. Thus, we evaluated juvenile tree growth for different site conditions in the Swiss Alps and developed an approach to model both the early and later stages of growth based on the Bertalanffy equation. This equation is physiologically well founded and requires only two parameter estimates: a maximum tree height and a growth parameter. Data for the parameter estimation were available from studies of tree regeneration at a range of sites in Switzerland: growth patterns of larch (Larix decidua) were available from a high-elevation afforestation experiment. For spruce (Picea abies), data were obtained from a blowdown area in the Alps. The growth equation was fitted to the observed data and we found a good correlation of the fitted curves with the observed data. The parameter estimates were validated with independent data sets. The extrapolated growth curves, calculated with the estimated growth rates, correspond well to the validation data. Thus, it is possible to use the Bertalanffy equation to model both the early and later stages of growth. With this approach, we provide a basis for modelling the growth of juvenile and mature trees of different tree species in mountain forests of the European Alps.

Mechanisms, effects and management implications of rockfall in forests

At the scale of forest stands, there is a lack of quantitative, statistically valid data on the protective effect of forests against rockfall. Therefore, the first objective of this study was to quantify the velocities, rebound heights as well as the residual hazard of rockfall on a forested and a non-forested slope. The second objective was to evaluate existing rockfall protection forest management guidelines, as well as the underlying criteria. We carried out and analysed 100 real size rockfall experiments at a non-forested site (Site 1) and 102 identical experiments at a forested site (Site 2) on the same slope. We compared the obtained results with literature data on rockfall protection forests. At the non-forested site, results show that the mean maximum velocity is 15.4 m s −1 compared to 11.7 m s −1 at the forested site. The maximum rebound height decreases from 8 m (Site 1) to 2 m (Site 2) and the number of rocks that surpass the 223.5 m slope distance decreases from 95 out of 100 (Site 1) to 35 out of 102 (Site 2). A major effect of rockfall on a forested slope is the development of a treeless rockfall path or couloir, which had evolved after releasing 78 rocks at Site 2. The effect of such a couloir can be mitigated by cutting trees on both sides of the couloir and leaving the trunks on the slope, diagonally to the slope direction. This is a known and effective technique to reduce the effect of gaps in protection forests. During our experiments, none of the rocks attained their maximal velocity within the first 40 m. They did, however, attain destructive velocities (11–15 m s −1) within that distance. Based on our observations, we propose a maximum gap size in the slope direction of 1.3 times the mean tree height, with a maximum of 40 m. Further, we present various findings that have direct implications for the management of rockfall protection forests. Finally, the results proved that forests can provide effective protection against rockfall.

Hunting in northern French Guiana and its impact on primate communities

The Guianas contain one of the largest single remaining tracts of undisturbed tropical rainforest in the world, but this forest and its fauna are facing increased threats. In the north of French Guiana both anthropogenic pressures and conflicts between settlements related to the use of natural resources are growing. Based on surveys in 17 forest sites we show that hunting pressure was the main factor determining current primate species richness, masking the effects of logging or forest type. Three of the larger species, the red howler monkey Alouatta seniculus, black spider monkey Ateles paniscus and tufted capuchin Cebus apella, were less abundant in hunted areas. In the areas around four settlements the harvested biomass of primates was low compared to other game species, but the harvests were close to or beyond the maximal sustainable thresholds for the red howler monkey and tufted capuchin. In French Guiana primates are either fully protected by law (the spider monkey and white-faced saki Pithecia pithecia), or their hunting is restricted to subsistence use (howler monkey, tufted capuchin and wedge-capped capuchin Cebus olivaceus). Most hunted meat is, however, destined for sale. Current conservation policy in French Guiana is limited to legal protection for some species and areas, and laws are poorly enforced. Although large areas of forest and its wildlife are protected simply by their remoteness, there is an increasingly urgent need for the legal protection of all primate species, and the establishment of large protected areas and efficient forest management schemes to minimize the impacts of logging and hunting.

Integrity, stability and management of protection forests in the European Alps

Ecosystem management of protection forests aims at maintaining forests near a state during which effective protection is secured. As the evolution of a dynamic forest ecosystem cannot be stopped, silvicultural measures are required which aim at maintaining both the ecosystem integrity and the protective function of mountain forests. Ecosystem integrity is defined as the system’s capacity to maintain structure and ecosystem functions using processes and elements characteristic for its ecoregion. Here, ecosystem functions also reflect the capability of the ecosystem to provide functions of value to humans. Ecosystem integrity of a protection forest implies that the stability (mainly the property resilience is addressed) of the forest is high, because that is required to provide a high level of protection in the long term. The main conditions promoting natural evolutionary processes and ecological stability in protection forests are: (1) a diverse composition of species; (2) sufficient natural regeneration; (3) an optimal forest structure. The first example in this chapter explains how these conditions might be achieved by silvicultural interventions in a forest that mainly protects against rockfall in the Austrian Alps. The second example deals with socio-economic aspects of ecosystem integrity of a forest that also protects against rockfall, but then in the French Alps. Both examples show that forest authorities are aware of techniques to improve the stand stability of protection forests, but the problem is that current forest management is often a kind of trial and error, because the exact consequences of interventions for forest ecosystem dynamics are not known. Therefore, it is proposed that forest ecosystem research should shift focus from protection forest dynamics to the geo-ecosystem functioning of protection forests, including the effects of natural and human disturbances. For this, the concept of panarchy may be a promising way forward.

Protecting Forests Through Farming A Dynamic Model of Nontimber Forest Extraction

Forest resource extraction by local communities has been cited as a major impediment to the efficient management of protected forests. This paper develops a two sector dynamic model for farming and forest resource extraction by communities living in the forest periphery. The model assumes that land under forestry is constant and households allocate their time to farming and forestry. Comparative dynamic results suggest that higher prices for agriculture output, lower input prices, better knowledge of farming techniques and a lower discount rate may result in a higher equilibrium stock of forest resources. Tobit analysis with primary data collected from the Sinharaja forest in Sri Lanka provides supportive empirical evidence.

Die Höhenverbreitung von Esche, Buche und Tanne. Diskussion am Beispiel der Luzerner Voralpen | Altitudinal distribution of ash, beech and silver fir: Discussion using the example of the Prealps in the canton of Lucerne

In the upper montane forests in the region of Entlebuch,Lucerne the current proportion of mixed stands of ash, beech and silver fir is low. Cultivation and management of stable,well-adapted stands is therefore illusory. If promotion of the missing species is to be encouraged in the future, the natural potential must first be ascertained. In order to achieve this the canton of Lucerne effectuated an expansive plant-sociological site map. The exact altitudinal distribution of each forest community first had to be ascertained, as the identification of the relevant species is hardly possible at a glance. In order to draw up a complete and accurate plant-sociological site map, the exact altitudinal distribution of each forest community had to be inventoried, as the determination of species is hardly possible at a glance. Only the systematic search for individual trees in the higher altitudes delivered a good database. In a survey,carried out from 1995 to 2000 along the northern slopes of the alps between Marbach and Pilatus, a total of 396 individual trees or tree groups of the three species were catalogued. By combining the collection of this data with the drawing up of the site map, the workload entailed in this survey remained within acceptable limits. The collected data show that scattered remnants of earlier mixed stands can still be found today. The maximum distribution altitude for silver fir lies at 1800 m.a.s.l., for beech at 1600 m.a.s.l. and for ash at 1400 m.a.s.l. In the uppermost 150 metres of distribution, trees only grow to the middle of this level and are not silviculturally relevant. Although in the next lowest 150 metres the three species do not generally attain numbers that are relevant regarding the function of stands, in certain adapted sites they can make up a considerable proportion and therefore greatly influence the structure, dynamics and stability of these stands. Today's underrepresentation of the three species in question can be plausibly explained within an historical context. The enormous requirement of wood in early industrial times,especially in the glass industry, played a central role. If the silvicultural management of protection forests is to be carried out in an economical sound manner with all embracing,long term goals the promotion of the examined tree species will play a considerable role. We have formulated a number of recommendations to help achieve these goals.

Schweizer Wald und die CO2-Problematik – ein Diskussionsbeitrag | The CO2-problem and forests in Switzerland – towards a discussion

Implementing the decisions taken in Bonn and Marrakech to meet resolutions set out in the Kyoto protocol provides Switzerland with the possibility of using the forest to reduce CO2 and to help meet the Swiss reductions goal. But how are climate policy and forest policy goals related in Switzerland?Using data from Switzerland's forests, climate and forest policy goals are set side by side and compared. We ascertain that many of the fixed goals have a common basis. The use of fossil fuels, for example, as far as wood is concerned, benefits both climate protection and Swiss forest management. However,from the point of view of the forests, negative incentives were created by the Kyoto protocol, that lead to the temptation of maximising the storage function of the forest which overlooks aspects of biological and agricultural diversity. Accordingly, this contribution is a call to all interested parties in Switzerland's forests to involve themselves in finding an active solution, which takes both climate and forestry policy into account.

Resistance and elasticity: promising concepts for the management of protection forests in the European Alps

Many mountain forests in the European Alps protect people and assets against natural hazards such as snow avalanches. These forests are mainly managed to ensure continuous and effective protection. Silvicultural operations should make protection forests as resistant as possible to natural disturbing agents such as wind that have the potential to impair effective protection, and they should increase their elasticity, i.e. speed of recovery once disturbances have impaired the protective effect. However, current management approaches do not yet consistently focus on enhancing resistance and elasticity in the face of multiple disturbances. Moreover, they use a stand level approach instead of an ecosystem-based approach. These shortcomings can be overcome by explicitly integrating resistance and elasticity into forest management. In this paper, the meaning of resistance and elasticity is clarified and illustrated with examples. A procedure to integrate resistance and elasticity into forest management is presented, with the five steps: Identification of disturbances and slow undesirable changes, identification of characteristics relevant to the resistance and elasticity of a forest to disturbances, identification of variables for monitoring these characteristics, establishment of target values for each variable, and implementation including monitoring. Suggestions to quantify resistance and elasticity are made.

Forest Resource Extraction by Local Communities: A Comparative Dynamic Analysis

Much of the world's gene pool is located in tropical rainforests, which are being destroyed at an alarming rate. Proper management of protected forests is crucial to avoid further loss of forest resources and biodiversity. Resource extraction by local communities has been cited as a major impediment to the efficient management of protected forests. This paper develops a two sector dynamic model for agriculture and forest resource extraction which suggests that agricultural development in the periphery of protected forests may be an effective strategy for forest protection. Comparative dynamic results show that higher prices for agricultural output, lower input prices, better knowledge of agricultural production techniques and a lower rate of individual time preferences result in higher equilibrium stock of forest resources. Tobit analysis with data collected from the Sinharaja forest in Sri Lanka provides supportive empirical evidence.

Payment for Environmental Services in Nepal (A Case Study of Shivapuri National Park, Kathmandu, Nepal)

With a view to highlight the issues of Payment for Environmental Services (PES) in Nepal, the paper aims at providing information on possible environmental goods and services rendered by the Shivapuri National Park (ShNP), Kathmandu. It also endeavors to explore the policy issues with regards to PES in Nepal. Secondary information was obtained through published and unpublished literatures and office records of ShNP whereas primary information was generated through various Rapid Appraisal tools; such as informal discussion with park officials, semi-structured interview, field observation etc. Despite the ShNP's role in providing environmental goods and services to the dwellers of Kathmandu metropolitan, the local inhabitants have not been benefited from such services. There has been low level of awareness on the issues such as environmental goods and services and possible benefits to be obtained and its equitable sharing. It is the dire need that policy should focus on these issues so that all the stakeholders could be benefited from the conservation and management of protected areas and forests in the country. Key Words: Payment for environmental services, Shivapuri national park, Upstream and downstream relationship, Benefit sharing, Free riders. DOI: 10.3126/init.v2i1.2525 The Initiation Vol.2(1) 2008 pp63-72