Mamluk Sultanate Research Articles

George Kiraz and Sabine Schmidtke, eds. Scribal Habits in Near Eastern Manuscript Traditions

George Kiraz and Sabine Schmidtke, eds. <i>Scribal Habits in Near Eastern Manuscript Traditions</i>

LITERASI DAN HAK CIPTA PADA ERA KESULTANAN MAMLUK MESIR 1250–1517 M

This research analyzes copyrights owned or enjoyed by authors in the era of the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate (648–923 AH/ 1250–1517 AD). Although the study focuses on the area and era of the Mamluk Sultanate, the idea of the integration of Islamic territories as one unified region (dār al-Islām) makes the results of this study have the potential to be drawn more broadly as a representative sample from various Islamic regions at that time. The main finding obtained from this research is that the massive literacy activities in the era of the Mamluk Sultanate gave rise to various unwritten agreements regarding an author's copyright among writers of that era. The emerging agreements tended to adapt to the conditions and spirit of the time, as the moral rights of writers in that era tended to be given more attention than the economic rights they had. The author's economic rights are almost completely limited to direct sales of the manuscripts he wrote/composed and rewards from their patrons. Meanwhile, copying manuscripts for personal and commercial purposes is done freely, almost without the author's permission. On the other hand, the second right, namely moral rights, whose embodiment is seen in the right of attribution and the right to safeguard the authenticity of manuscript content, seems to be considered more important by writers in this era. This tendency is because of the author's reputation and the potential influence (both in social, political, and religious aspects) that the writer can "enjoy" as an implication for the spread of the works he writes in various Islamic areas.

Vassal Mamluk rulers of Egypt and Syria in the service of the Ottomans

The fall of the Mamluk Sultanate under the onslaught of the Ottoman invasion in 1516-1517 turned the entire course of events both in Egypt and throughout the Muslim world. However, the establishment of direct Turkish rule on the territory of the former Mamluk possessions was preceded by a short transitional period of vassalage. The Ottoman Sultan Selim I Yavuz (1512-1520) appointed in Egypt and Syria two devoted to him Mamluk emirs Khair-bek and Janbirdi al-Ghazali, whose actions infl the further strengthening of the power of the Turks in the Middle Eastern provinces. The main purpose of the study is to identify the reasons for such an abrupt change in the policy of the Ottomans in Egypt and Syria. The author examines in detail the period of rule of the vassal Mamluk emirs and tries to determine how their actions infl the decision of the High Porte to appoint their own governors and remove the Mamluks from power. Using the historical and genealogical method, the author begins with a description of the events of the Ottoman-Mamluk war of 1516-1517. During the confl both emirs showed far-sightedness and went over to the side of the Ottomans. Therefore, they earned the special favor of Sultan Selim. However, later, while in power, both Khair-bek and Janbirdi al-Ghazali showed a tendency to arbitrariness, which served as an alarm signal for the Ottomans. Moreover, after the death of Selim, Janbirdi openly opposed the Ottomans. The result of the reign of both commanders, therefore, was an even greater strengthening of the Turks and the further weakening of the Mamluks in the Islamic world.

Harafish and Zaar in the era of the Mamluk sultans 648-923 AH / 1250-1517 AD

In this study, we highlight two social groups that appeared in the era of the Mamluks who ruled Egypt and Bilad al-Sham, namely the class of Harafish that appeared in Egypt, and al-Zu`r in Damascus. We try to understand the objective reasons that led to their appearance in terms of their presence and their characteristics that distinguish them from the rest of society, their influence in the Egyptian and Damascene society, as well as the actions they have undertaken that were considered alien to the customs and traditions of Islamic societies, as well as the position of the Mamluk authority on these two sects and the reasons That led to the agreement of the authorities in suppressing them until their affairs became more difficult and it became difficult to curb them, especially after the voices came out to put an end to the problems they created in their areas of presence

Tree of Pearls

Almost any survey of medieval Islamic history will cover the figure of Shajar al-Durr (“Tree of Pearls” in Arabic), who was one of the fewwomen in Islamic history to hold the title of Sultan, and the only one to do so who began her life as a slave. She is also well known as a pivotal figure in Egyptian politics, as she marked the transition between Saladin’s Ayyubid dynasty (1171–1250 CE) and the Mamluk sultanate (1250–1517 CE). However, works that analyze Shajar al-Durr’s biography, reign, and influence often overlook her role as an architectural innovator. In Tree of Pearls, art historian D. Fairchild Ruggles highlights Shajar al-Durr’s architectural innovations and argues that her “architectural patronage…changed the face of Cairo and had a lasting impact on Islamic architecture”.

The Political Struggle and Succession in the Mamluk Sultanate during the Reign of al-Ẓāhir Yalbāy and al-Ẓāhir Tamurbughā (1467–1468)

The reign of al-Ẓāhir Barqūq (1382–1389; 1390–1399), the first sultane of the Circassian sultanate (1382–1517), marked the transition from dynastic to non-dynastic principle of succession in the Mamluk State (1250–1517). The Circassian sultans did not create a dynasty in the full sense of the word. Most of them tried to hand the power over to their sons, but the rule of such heirs tended to be nominal and short-lived. Those Circassian sultans who did manage to remain in power generally were not lineal descendants of their predecessors. By the beginning of the third decade of the 15th century the non-dynastic system of succession acquired a stable character, and the short-term rule of the heir sultan began to play the role of a transitional period, during which the amirs united in coalitions and determined the candidacy of the next sultan. The failure of this new system of succession, which had been working properly for more than forty years, occurred after the death of the sultan al-Ẓāhir Khushqadam (1461–1467). This article unravels the complex events of the political crisis in Cairo in 1467–1468 to identify a set of factors that determined the level of stability of the political system based on non-dynastic succession. In order to examine the political upheaval during the reign of al-Ẓāhir Yalbāy and al-Ẓāhir Tamurbughā this paper deals with the conception of the Mamluk Sultanate by A. Levanoni and some modern scholarly approaches to the transformation of Syro-Egyptian political organization, discussed in recent publications of J. Van Steenbergen.

The Sultan's Pool in Hebron: A Renewed Examination

Near the Cave of the Patriarchs, there is a large pool known as the Sultan's Pool. This pool was an important source of water for the residents of Hebron. A Muslim tradition has attributed the construction of the pool to the Mamluk Sultan Qalāwūn, dating it to the end of the 13th century. However, the chipping on the edge of the stones of the pool's walls, the smoothed lug, a number of decorations found for the first time on the pool's walls, and an overall examination of the pool's components suggests that the pool should be dated to the Crusader period. The pool conveys openness, supporting the idea that Frankish society maintained reciprocal relations with its environment and did not remain closed behind fortress walls. The water reservoir built by Sultan Qalāwūn approximately 130 years later must be sought elsewhere. In the Jewish and Christian tradition, this pool is the biblical "Pool of David." In accordance with the new findings, the article's author does not rule out the possibility that the biblical Pool of David is indeed located in this place; however, only an archaeological excavation in the pool itself may provide an answer as to its origins.

Review: Cairo in Chicago: Cairo Street at the World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893

Review: <i>Cairo in Chicago: Cairo Street at the World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893</i>

Social life of medieval Egyptian women

This article contains information on the role of women in public life during the reign of the Mamluks in Egypt (1250-1517), their influence on the Mamluk sultans, and Queen of Egypt Shajaratu-d-dur, which contributed to the creation of the Mamluk state. The article is based on the works of many medieval Arab historians. It is known that in Islamic countries there is an opinion that a woman cannot rule the state. After the death of Sultan Turanshah in 1250, prominent people of Egypt saw the need for the ascension of Shajaratu-d-dur to the throne. She ruled Egypt for 80 days. When she realized that the courtiers were beginning to rebel against her rule, she married commander-in-chief Oybek. And when Muad ad-Din Oybek al-Turkmani ascended the throne, the period of direct rule of the Mamluks began. In the palaces of the Mamluk sultans, women were glorified and called “hotun”. Women at that time were followers of Sufi sects along with men. Hund Shakarboy, the wife of the Sultan of Hushkadam, was known as the patron of the Badavia sect. Writers of that period described women in their works. Women spent their time mainly in their homes and went outside mainly for shopping at the market and for weddings.

SOCIAL LIFE OF MEDIEVAL EGYPTIAN WIVES

This article contains information on the role of women in public life during the reign of the Mamluks in Egypt (1250-1517), their influence on the Mamluk sultans, and Queen of Egypt Shajaratu-d-dur, which contributed to the creation of the Mamluk state. The article is based on the works of many medieval Arab historians. It is known that in Islamic countries there is an opinion that a woman cannot rule the state. After the death of Sultan Turanshah in 1250, prominent people of Egypt saw the need for the ascension of Shajaratu-d-dur to the throne. She ruled Egypt for 80 days. When she realized that the courtiers were beginning to rebel against her rule, she married commander-in-chief Oybek. And when Muad ad-Din Oybek al-Turkmani ascended the throne, the period of direct rule of the Mamluks began. In the palaces of the Mamluk sultans, women were glorified and called “hotun”. Women at that time were followers of Sufi sects along with men. Hund Shakarboy, the wife of the Sultan of Hushkadam, was known as the patron of the Badavia sect. Writers of that period described women in their works. Women spent their time mainly in their homes and went outside mainly for shopping at the market and for weddings.

Animals and Human Society in Asia: Historical, Cultural and Ethical Perspectives

Animals and Human Society in Asia: Historical, Cultural and Ethical Perspectives

Muslim saints contested: Ibn Taymiyya’s critique of al-Qushayrī’s Risāla

Abstract This article analyses Ibn Taymiyya’s neglected commentary on ʿAbū al-Qāsim al-Qushayrī ’s Epistle on Sufism (al-Risāla al-Qushayriyya fī ʿilm al-taṣawwuf), in which he wages several intellectual battles simultaneously: with Ashʿarī theologians of earlier centuries, such as al-Qushayrī himself; with his Ashʿarī contemporaries like Ibn Jahbal al-Kilābī; and with advocates in Damascus and Cairo of Ibn al-ʿArabī’s monistic teachings. Ibn Taymiyya deploys a set of historical and discursive arguments rooted in the early Sufi historiography to argue that both Ashaʿrīs and monistic-minded Sufis do not have a rightful claim to the heritage of the early Sufi authorities. In the struggle to define ‘Islamic orthodoxy’, Ashaʿrīs and Ḥanbalīs evince two radically different approaches to Sufi sayings. Al-Qushayrī and Ibn Jahbal affirm the harmony between Sufi utterances and the rational proofs of speculative theology (kalām), while, in stark contrast, Ibn Taymiyya accentuates their ascetic-mystical connotations. This Ḥanbalī–Ashʿarī debate comprised two conflicting attitudes to the notion of ‘Muslim sainthood’ (wilāya): the Ashʿarīs insisted that early Sufi saintly figures (awliyāʾ) mastered the principles of kalām in order to explain the nature of God to different classes of the Muslim community, while Ibn Taymiyya believed that this type of theological reasoning undermined the very foundations of the spiritual teachings of the early Sufis and retarded the spiritual growth of those who undertook the Sufi path. These polemical exchanges demonstrate that Sufi figures, concepts, images, and texts became central to the articulation of theological arguments during the early Mamluk sultanate.

Does a Mamluk Sultan Hold Religious Authority? Quranic Exegesis and ḥadīṯ Scholarship in Late Mamluk Courtly maǧālis

Abstract The article critically reexamines the notion of Mamluk rulers being uninterested in religious affairs and the authority a supreme religious status could bestow. It shows that, with the late Mamluk ruler Qāniṣawh al-Ġawrī (r. 906/1501–922/1516), at least one Mamluk sultan laid claim to religious authority through his participation in courtly processes of knowledge production and transmission in his learned maǧālis. These efforts culminated in the attempt to portray al-Ġawrī as “the sultan of scholars and verifiers (sulṭān al-ʿulamāʾ wa-l-muḥaqqiqīn)” and “the sultan of the truly insightful (sulṭān al-ʿārifīn).” Al-Ġawrī used the scholarly status conveyed through these titles to re-affirm a decidedly Sunni interpretation of prophetic traditions and the Quran, thus setting himself apart from many of the so-called “millennial sovereigns” of his time whose claims for spiritual leadership often marked a break with traditional Sunni concepts of political rule and religious authority.

Prophetic Piety, Mysticism, and Authority in Premodern Arabic Devotional Literature: al-Jazuli's Dala'il al-Khayrat (15th Century)

AbstractIn the Maghreb and the Mamluk sultanate during the 15th century, the production of books that encouraged devotion to the Prophet Muhammad—both commentaries on existing texts and new works—increased. This literary production was an expression of the intensification of the veneration of the Prophet that occurred under the influence of Sufis and the political elite. The Arabic devotional literature dedicated to the Prophet began to take shape during the 12th and 13th centuries with the rise of the great saintly sufi figures who laid claim to Prophetic descent and composed celebrated prayers and litanies of blessings upon the Prophet. This article looks at how such texts were critical in the diffusion to popular audiences of doctrinal concepts developed by sufis who placed the figure of the Prophet at the heart of spiritual life and the doctrine of sainthood (walāya). Specifically, it examines a well known but nevertheless understudied 15th-century Moroccan prayer book that is still in use today: Dala'il al-Khayrat (Proofs of Good Deeds). In studying this text, which is both emblematic and exceptional, my aim is to cast fresh light on the novel political, economic, and institutional conditions surrounding the international circulation of an Arabic literature of devotion to the Prophet during the early modern period, and to explore the religious and political implications of these circumstances for sufis of the time.

EYYÛBİLER, BAHRİ MEMLÛKLER VE TİMUR DÖNEMİNDE HASTALIK VE ÖLÜM NEDENİYLE SADAKA VERME GELENEĞİ

İslâmiyet yoksulu maddi bakımdan iyileştirmek adına bazı kurallar ve yenilikler getirmiştir. Türkler bu kuralları kısa sürede özümsemiştir. Zira öteden beri Türk sosyal yapısının doğasında yardımlaşmak ve paylaşmak gibi değerler mevcuttur. &#x0D; İslam’ın yoksulluğa çözüm olarak getirdiği yeniliklerden biri sadakadır. Bu yenilik, Türk kültüründe mal ületmek kavramıyla örtüşmektedir. Kaşgarlı Mahmud ve Yusuf Has Hâcib yoksullara yapılan maddi yardımları bu tabirle ifade etmiş, sürekli cömertliğe vurgu yapmışlardır. Yusuf Has Hacib ayrıca, hastalıktan kurtulmak, kötü rüyaların etkisinden korunmak, Tanrı’nın rızasını kazanmak gibi bazı durumlar için sadaka verilmesini önermiştir. Dede Korkut hikâyelerinde sadaka geçmekte olup baş ve gözün kefareti ve dileklerin gerçekleşmesi için verilmektedir.&#x0D; Türk devlet adamları uygun gördükleri her vakit sadaka dağıtmaya özen göstermiştir. Bununla birlikte bu gelenek genelde, doğum ve sünnet gibi kutlamalarda, günahlardan arınmak ve korunmak için, kutsal aylarda, dinî bayramlarda ve günlerde, kabir ziyaretlerinde, matem vakitlerinde, hastalık ve şifa zamanlarında uygulanmıştır. Ayrıca bu son iki durumda kimi hükümdarlar köle ve cariyelerini özgür kılmış, vergileri kaldırmış veya düşürmüş, borçlunun borcunu ödemiş, mahkûmları serbest bırakmıştır. Müslüman Türk hanedan üyeleri ayrıca, Mekke ve Medine fakirlerine yüklü miktarlarda pek çok sadaka göndermiş, hac yollarının bakımı, hacıların güvenliği, hacılara erzak ve su teminini gönüllü olarak üstlenmiştir&#x0D; Müslüman Türk devlet adamları gelenekte sadakanın kişiyi hastalıklardan koruduğu ve belayı def ettiği inancından ötürü hastalık vakitlerinde bu âdeti yerine getirmiştir. Eyyûbî, Memlûk ve Timur dönemi bu geleneğin yürürlükte olduğu en canlı dönemlerdendir. Eyyûbi Devleti’nin kurucusu Selahaddin Eyyûbî, kardeşi el-Âdil, el-Melikü’z-Zâhir, Hama hâkimi el-Melik el-Mansur Nâsıreddin Muhammed, El-Melikü’l Muazzam Şerefüddîn Îsâ b. el-Âdil b. Eyyûb, el-Eşref Musa b. Âdil bu geleneği uygulayan Eyyubi hükümdarlarındandır. Memlûk sultanlarından Melikü’z-Zâhir Baybars, Kalavun ve Kalavun ailesi ve emirler bu geleneği muhafaza etmiştir. Memlûk sultanları iyileştiklerinde emirleri ve diğer devlet adamları tarafından tebrik edilmiş, Kahire’de ve Mısır’da şenlikler düzenlenmiş, hilatlar dağıtılmıştır. &#x0D; Müslüman Türk devlet adamları ölünün ruhu için sadakalar dağıtmıştır. Memlûklerde dağıtılan sadaka dışında sadakadan sayılan, cenaze önüne halk tarafından yağmalanması için kefaretler hazırlanmıştır. Timur kendi aile fertlerinin mateminde yukarıdaki gelenekleri yerine getirmiştir. Timur, oğlu Cihangir’in, kızı Tagayşah Aka Beg’in, eşi Dilşad Aga’nın, ablası Kutluk Türkan’ın ve babasının hatunu Kadak Hatun’un yaslarını tutmuş ve ruhları için yoksulara yemekler vermiş, sadakalar vermiştir. Selçuklu sultanları ve İlhanlılar da matem sırasında bu geleneği tatbik etmiştir. Müslüman Türk devlet adamları ölüm yıl dönümü nedeniyle de aynı usulleri icra etmişlerdir. Timur’un ve Şehzade Muhammed Sultan’ın ölüm yıl dönemlerinde sadakalar dağıtılmıştır.&#x0D; Biz bu çalışmada Eyyubiler, Bahri Memlûkler ve Timur dönemi temelinde Türk hanedanlıklarında hastalık ve matem zamanlarında sadaka dağıtma geleneği konusunu değerlendireceğiz.

Sea Change: Ottoman Textiles between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean

Sea Change: Ottoman Textiles between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean

The Competitive Between Ayyubid and Mamluk Sultans in Baḥarī Mamluk Period: An Applied Study on Madrasa(s) and Dome of al-Ṣāliḥ Najm al-Dīn Ayyub, Madrasa of al-Ẓāhir Baybars al-Bunduqdāry and Complex of al-Manṣūr Qalawwn at Street of al-Muʻiz lidīn Allāh al-Fāṭmy

The Competitive Between Ayyubid and Mamluk Sultans in Baḥarī Mamluk Period: An Applied Study on Madrasa(s) and Dome of al-Ṣāliḥ Najm al-Dīn Ayyub, Madrasa of al-Ẓāhir Baybars al-Bunduqdāry and Complex of al-Manṣūr Qalawwn at Street of al-Muʻiz lidīn Allāh al-Fāṭmy

Arabic Christianity between the Ottoman Levant and Eastern Europe

Arabic Christianity between the Ottoman Levant and Eastern Europe

Развитие ислама и его традиций на территории Золотой Орды по сведениям средневековых арабских сочинений XIII–XV вв.

The article deals with the adoption of Islam and its legitimization in the territory of the Golden Horde. It is noted that Islam played an important role in the formation and development of this medieval state, helping to strengthen its position both within the country and abroad. Islamiza-tion also influenced the process of integrating socio-cultural and ethno-political elements into a single community, thanks to the implementation of a tolerant religious policy. Sufism also made an important contribution to the development of Islamic institutions. The spread of Sufism in the terri-tory of the Golden Horde also led the formation of various Sufi teachings, widely disseminated both among the common people and in the ruling elite. The latter supported the teachings of sheikhs and representatives of various religious schools, which is confirmed by chronicles, historical and artistic works. Most of the information on the formation and spread of Islam in the territory of the Golden Horde can be found on the pages of medieval Arabic chronicles of the 13th–15th centuries. For the most part, these are the memoirs of Muslim merchants and travelers who personally visited the Golden Horde, as well as the writings of Egyptian scribes who served at the court of the Mamluk sultans in Egypt at a time when diplomatic and friendly ties were established between the two states.

Trajectories of State Formation across Fifteenth-Century Islamic West-Asia: Eurasian Parallels, Connections and Divergences edited by Jo van Steenbergen

<i>Trajectories of State Formation across Fifteenth-Century Islamic West-Asia: Eurasian Parallels, Connections and Divergences</i> edited by Jo van Steenbergen