Mamluk Sultanate Research Articles

An Inscribed Ballista Stone from Apollonia-Arsuf, Israel, and Stone-throwing Siege Machines in the Medieval Near East

This article presents a unique example of a roughly round ballista stone (ca. 32 x 31 cm) retrieved during excavations at Apollonia-Arsuf. It bears a two-line (one horizontal, the other vertical) Arabic inscription. Given the context of the ballista stones found at the site, it can be dated to March–April 1265, when the town and castle of Arsur were under siege by the Mamluk army headed by Baybars. The ballista stone is analyzed in relation to the site history and archaeology, its inscription, and the Mamluk sultanate 13th-century stone-throwing siege-machine artillery.

Viziers in the Administrative System of Egypt under the Burji Mamluks

Among the least studied issues in the history of the Sultanate of the Mamluks, there are the principles and dynamics of the Mamluks’ interaction with the administrative system represented by the local elite. The article considers issues connected with the transformation of the Mamluk administrative system which took place during the Burji period (1382–1517). As early as the thirteenth — fourteenth centuries, a gradual displacement of representatives of the civilian population from various administrative positions and their replacement with Mamluk emirs began. This process acquired particular importance in connection with the position of the vizier, since the last Mamluk sultans occupied this position before assuming the throne. In the twentieth century, D. Ayalon (1914–1998) raised some questions related to the evolution of the military-administrative system in Egypt between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries, but a comprehensive and systematic study of the problems outlined by this pioneer and one of the founders of modern Mamluk studies has not yet been carried out. Based on several Arabic chronicles and biographical dictionaries of the fifteenth century, the author traces changes in the position and functions of the vizier in the Mamluk administrative system, highlighting the reasons for these changes, their significance for the evolution of political and social relations in the Mamluk Sultanate in the final period of its history. Referring to the vizierate, the author considers a significant transformation of the Egyptian state-administrative system under the Burji sultans, which is most closely associated with the destruction of the social boundaries and stereotypes that prevailed in the previous period, the acquisition of new forms and functions by political groups, and the reconfiguration of the central government.

A Mamluk-Venetian Memorandum on Asian Trade, AD 1503

AbstractThis article presents and discusses a source of unique importance for our knowledge of early modern global exchanges. Produced in 1503 by the Egyptian administration and found among the records of a Venetian company with global commercial interests, the document records hitherto unknown connections between the Arabian Peninsula, the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia, followed by cargo figures. By sending the Memorandum to the head office in Venice, the Company's agents in Egypt were labouring to solve the most important concern of Venice's information network, that of coordinating Indian with Mediterranean trading seasons. By analysing the document's context, namely, a company involved in the export of central European metals to Asia, this article focuses on the capacity of its agents to gather information through collaboration, networking and ultimately, friendship with Muslim partners and informers. The story of the 1503 Memorandum and its transmission raises questions about the mixed networks underpinning global exchanges, the role of information and the drive of the late Mamluk sultanate into the world of the Indian Ocean.

Bewilderment between Might and Right: Tawfiq al-Hakim’s The Sultan’s Dilemma (al- Sulṭan al-Ha’ir)

The Egyptian writer Tawfiq al-Hakim (1898- 1987) is one of the leading figures in Arabic literature and drama. In his masterpiece, The Sultan’s Dilemma (1960), al-Hakim discusses an eternal question, which is mightier and has a lasting, influential role. Is it the power of authority or the power of the principles? Is it the sword or the law? The play is set in the medieval past, but its moral is addressed to the modern world. It explores the legitimacy of power through the character of a Mamluk Sultan raised into power. Suddenly, this Sultan faced a dilemma that he is neither a legible ruler nor released from the slavery of the earlier Sultan. Hence, the Sultan finds himself trapped between using forceful authority to establish his kinghood or applying the rightful law that might be difficult to be achieved, and it might take time. Sultan’s dilemma symbolizes the political predicament that the modern world is facing.

شیخ الإسلام السراج البُلقینیّ (724 – 805هـــ/1324 – 1403م) دراسة فی وظائفه الدینیة إبَّان عصر سلاطین الممالیک

يستمد هذا البحث أهميته وغايته من هدفين رئيسيين، أولهما: عام، ويتمثل في إلقاء الضوء على بعض من مظاهر حضارة عصر سلاطين المماليک، وذلک من خلال دراسة البيت البلقيني، کأحد أهم البيوتات التي ظهرت إبان هذا العصر، وقد تفرع لعدد من الأسر کانت ذات أثر حضاري کبير، وهو المحور العام لدراستنا؛ وأما عن ثاني الأهداف، فهو خاص، ويتمثل في تناول الباحث بالدراسة الوظائف الدينية، التي تبوأها شيخ الإسلام السراج البلقيني، أحد علماء هذا البيت العظام، الذين أثروا المکتبة التاريخية والحضارية الإسلامية في شتى مجالاتها، وتبارى المؤرخون في الإشادة به، وبجهوده الحضارية، وستحاول هذه الدراسة تجسيد ذلک في إطار عنوان البحث، مستهدفة تزويد المکتبة الإسلامية بدراسة جادة ومفيدة بعون الله، إضافة إلى أن هذا الموضوع لم يحظ بکثير من الدراسات العلمية الجادة والمتعمقة في هذا الجانب ذو الأهمية الکبرى. This research derives its importance and purpose from two main objectives, the first of which is general, which is to shed light on some aspects of the civilization of the era of the Mamluk sultans. that is through the study of The Bulqīnī House as one of the most important houses that appeared during this era , and some of them branched off to a group of families with a great cultural impact, and it is the general axis of our study. As for the second goal, it is private, The researcher will deal with the study of the religious functions which were assumed by Sheikh Al-Islam Al-Sirāj al-Bulqīnī. one of the scholars of this great house, who enriched the Islamic historical and civilization library in its various fields. Historians competed to praise him and his civilizing efforts, This study will attempt to embody that within the framework of the research title, aiming to provide the Islamic library with a serious and useful study with the help of God, in addition to the fact that this topic has not received many serious and in-depth scientific studies in this aspect of great importance.

Weapon injuries in the crusader mass graves from a 13th century attack on the port city of Sidon (Lebanon)

Archaeological excavations close to St Louis’ castle in Sidon, Lebanon have revealed two mass grave deposits containing partially articulated and disarticulated human skeletal remains. A minimum of 25 male individuals have been recovered, with no females or young children. Radiocarbon dating of the human remains, a crusader coin, and the design of Frankish belt buckles strongly indicate they belong to a single event in the mid-13th century CE. The skeletal remains demonstrate a high prevalence of unhealed sharp force, penetrating force and blunt force trauma consistent with medieval weaponry. Higher numbers of wounds on the back of individuals than the front suggests some were attacked from behind, possibly as they fled. The concentration of blade wounds to the back of the neck of others would be compatible with execution by decapitation following their capture. Taphonomic changes indicate the skeletal remains were left exposed for some weeks prior to being collected together and re-deposited in the defensive ditch by a fortified gateway within the town wall. Charring on some bones provides evidence of burning of the bodies. The findings imply the systematic clearance of partially decomposed corpses following an attack on the city, where adult and teenage males died as a result of weapon related trauma. The skeletons date from the second half of the Crusader period, when Christian-held Sidon came under direct assault from both the Mamluk Sultanate (1253 CE) and the Ilkhanate Mongols (1260 CE). It is likely that those in the mass graves died during one of these assaults.

Perfuming saffron in Egypt in the era of the Mamluk sultans: (648-923AH/1250-1517AD)

When we look at the historical trajectory of any civilization as a gradual process of moving patterns of life from simplicity and fulfillment of to complexity and diversity of requirements. By virtue of the Egyptian civilization historical precedence, it had a distinguished precedent in capturing every material of nature that contributed to achieve ritual richness. Where ritual practices were one of the most important features of Egyptian civilization throughout the history of its social and religious activities And manifested itself portrayed in the Islamic era, especially since the Mamlukera, At an early age, patterns of group communication moved from the level of seeking to provide the necessities of living to the level of concern for achieving in life. Our gateway to examining an aspect of this passion for rituals and achieving improvements will be to observe pages of the Egyptian history of Perfumingsaffron on various occasions in the Mamluk era . Through an initial observation which indicated that Perfuming saffron consider a ritual that took place in social situations differed in the nature of its emotional component and varied in the nature of it's psychological effect, the behavior of Perfuming saffron included all classes of Egyptian society, where rulers use it as well as members of the common Egyptian people. The current study revolves around that historical period, with the beginning of the linguistic and idiomatic definition of Perfuming saffron, followed by an explanation of the various uses of the saffron plant. There are also some references that explain the precedence of the ancient Egyptian civilization to practice the ritual of perfuming saffron until the establishment of the Mamluk state, it became a prominent mark of the diversity of its images among the Strata of society in various situations that sometimes express joy and happiness, as well as show schadenfreude, the sources also mentioned pictures of the of perfuming messages, banners, clothing, shrouds, religious and civil architectural structures with saffron.

Al-Zahir Baybars Mosque in Qalioub, Qalyoubia Governorate: A Civilized Archaeological Study

Qaliubiya governorate is one of the governorates of Lower Egypt, and due to the spatial framework of Qaliubiya and its features in terms of location and moderate climate, all of this is of the importance of the governorate and it has gained a great position throughout the historical ages, especially in the era of the Mamluks who established buildings and facilities in it, so there were bureaus and the house of Muslims' money and others. . And at the head of these Mamluk sultans who took care of the governorate was al-Zahir Baybars, so he built canals and dams, and a large mosque was attributed to him in Qalioub, the base of the region at that time. It is likely to be built between 668-670 AH / 1270-1272 CE. The research aims to study the Baybars mosque in Qalioubia in Qalioubia governorate an archaeological, civilizational and descriptive study. The importance of the research lies in that it publishes documentation of this effect for the first time, as well as the research, provides an overview of the cultural and historical position of Qalyubia Governorate and the city of Qalioub, how to benefit from them in the field of tourism and put forward recommendations that help their development to achieve this Target. Despite the importance of this effect, archaeological studies have not previously indicated it.

المنافی فی مصر عصر سلاطین الممالیک دمیاط نموذجًا 648- 923ه/ 1250- 1517م

خلال عصر سلاطين المماليک، أصبحت عقوبة النفي تتم بغير حکم قضائي، ولکن بأمر سلطاني من سلاطين دولة المماليک، أو بمن تکن بيده السلطة الفعلية بالدولة، لأسباب شتى أکثرها سياسي، وهو ما کان يعبر عن طبيعة حکم المماليک القائم على التتنافس والتقاتل لحيازة السلطنة. ولن يعنى هذا البحث بالحديث عن النفي کعقوبة وأسباب توقيعها، ولکن سيعني بالمقام الأول بدرجات عقوبة النفي، وبالمدن التي اتخذها سلاطين المماليک منفى لمن أرادوا نفيه، سواء کانت تلک المدن في مصر أو الشام أو الحجاز، وهي أقاليم السلطنة المملوکية، مع الترکيز على النفي لمدن مصر عامة، ومدينة دمياط خاصة، ولن يکون هذا الأمر وصفا، ولکن محاولة للإجابة على السؤال الأهم، وهو ما الفرق بين هذه المدن في نفي الأشخاص إليها؟، وهل کان النفي لمجرد الإبعاد عن المکان؟ وإن کان الأمر کذلک، لماذا کان النفي في أغلبه يتجه إلى مدن بعينها داخل مصر وخارجها؟. Exiles in Egypt, the era of the Mamluk Sultans: Damietta as a model 648-923 H. / 1250-1517 AD Ahraf Muhammad Anas Faculty of Arts – Mansura University- Egypt. Email: ashrafanas2002@yahoo.com Abstract: During the Mamlukids' era, the exile punishment was imposed without a juridical verdict, but by the Sultans' decrees, or through the de facto ruler in the state. This exile was enforced for several reason mostly political, which reflects the nature of Muamluk rule, who rely on fights and competition for power. This paper will not examine the exile as punishment and its reasons, but rather will illustrate the degrees of exile punishment, and the cities utilized by the Mamluk sultans as a place of exile, weather these cities were in Egypt or Syria or Hejaz, within the Mamluk sultanate. At the same time, it will focus mainly on Egyptian cities, especially Damietta. This will not be a mere description but rather an attempt to answer the most significant question, i.e. what are the variances between these cities in their function as exile places? Was the exile punishment was merely deportation?. If so the case, why the exile was mainly towards Egyptian cities as a place of exile?

THE SOCIAL LIFE OF THE MARINE MAMLUKS IN THE LEVANT(648 – 784 AH / 1250 – 1382 AD)

Our research explores the various social aspects of the Mamluks، specifically the marine ones، in the Levant, and the paths they took to take them to the Islamic world and the goal or purpose of bringing them and using them, and what the Islamic world has been exposedto in terms of external and even internal dangers, which increased the necessity to bring them, and then training them in martial arts, so that the caliphs and princes formed strong armies from them، to repel various attacks, whether internal or external and then how they control the government, and then the formation of a strong state that ruled for nearly three centuries، which appeared in the form of two states. The first Mamluk state, which was called the Turkish (Maritime) state, which we are going to talk about, and the second Mamluk state، which was called the Circassian (Burjia) which ruled during the period (784 – 923 AH). The research cheds light on the Levantine society and its divisions and the researchers differed in the way it was divided, it was a diverse society of classes and degrees, and on the basis of this diversity the way of life differed in its various aspects. The research sheds light on holidays, official and family occasions, then the status of Mamluk women and the accompanying contributions to different social life. Also, the study did not overlook the urban aspect,and the interest of the Mamluk sultans in building various institutions of places of worship such as Mosques, SUFI RBT and KHANQAH، and other important facilities of the state, we hope that we have presented an integrated study of a diverse and brief social life.

О формах правосознания: пример одного анализа

The article raises the question of the possibility of reconstructing the legal consciousness of one culture and era in the categories and concepts of another. The subject of analysis is the plot of a medieval fairy tale from the collection Arabian Nights. Most European researchers of modern Europe perceive the plot of this story as a demonstration of the blatant injustice and corruption that reigned in Egypt during the Mamluk sultanate. At the same time this story appears completely different when correlated with the principles and norms of Muslim law. It tells how divine wisdom guides the people’s actions without them knowing, establishing order and justice in society. Fairy tales reveal the relationship between the upper world and the earth one, testify to the divine care for the daily life of people.

Venesection Sites on the Horse in the Veterinary Handbook of al-Nāṣirī

The author usually referred to a sal-NāṣirīorIbnal-Mundir (AbūBakrb.Badral-Dīnal-Mundir al-Bayṭārca.A.H.709-741/A.D.1309-1340) composed his handbook on the diseases of horses and the treatments thereof at the request of Nāṣir al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Qalāwūn in the middle of the 14thcentury. Under this Mamluk sultan, he served as a chief veterinarian. A 9th-century work by Ibn AhīḤizām titled Kāmilal-sinā‘tayn served as the basis of l-Nāṣirī’shandbook. As evident from the title of the book, the author offered a summary of a wide range of themes concerning horses, beginning with the important role in the jihad, and proceeding to discuss soft he inbreeds and military training. He compares the equid diseases with human ones, as a structure that allows him to describe their medical treatments as well. The description of venesection sites, of obvious use for practising veterinarians, is featured among the chapters on anatomical structures.Theseventhchapteroftheworkmentionsasmanyas21optional site of bloodletting. Here the text indicates only the silent/non-palpitating blood-vessels” (ġayral-ḍawārib),aconceptthatIsoughttoidentifybyrecoursetomodernveterinary anatomical source sand by consulting the expert opinion of distinguishing the professor of veterinary medicine, Dr Ferenc Szalay(whosehelpIgratefullyacknowledgehere).In the medievalArabiccontext, veins and arteries were not yet defined in a way analogous to modern definitions;inaccordancewithGalen’sandhispredecessors’philosophy, the veins were traced to the liver, and the arteries, to the heart. Veins were thought to carry blood and nutrients to the organs to nourish them, while arteries distribute the innate heat to every part of the body. Al-Nāṣirīclassifiedthebloodsystemasakindoffunctionalanatomy,incontrasttoGalen’s work on bloodletting, which described blood vessels according to the anatomy of the discrete body regions.

Al-Ashraf Īnāl (1453–1461) and al-Zāhir Khushqadam (1461–1467): the patterns of Mamluk political elite formation

The study explores the political struggle and the issue of succession in theMamlukSultanate, especially under the Circassian Sultans al-Ashraf Īnāl (1453–1461), al-Muʾayyad Aḥmad (25.02.1461–28.06.1461) and al-Ẓāhir Khushqadam (1461–1467) and elucidates intricacies behind their policy. In the Mamluk Sultanate the transfer of power, especially in the Circassian period (1382–1517), was not determined by the principle of dynastic succession. It is well known that the Circassian sultans did not create a dynasty in every sense of the word. Most of them tried to hand the power over to their sons, but the rule of such heirs tended to be nominal and short-lived. Those Circassian sultans who did manage to remain in power generally were not lineal descendants of their predecessors. A clearly visible trend in the Circassian succession was that an influential and ambitious amir had a good chance of becoming sultan one day.

The Ottoman-Mamluk War of 1516–1517 as Described by the Egyptian Historian Ibn Zunbul

The author of this article focuses on the 16th century work “The End of the Temporary Dynasty and the Rise to Power of the Ottoman Dynasty” by the Egyptian historian Ibn Zunbul Al-Rammal (“History” by Ibn Zunbul) and the events of the Ottoman-Mamluk war of 1516–1517 described in it. This book is the author’s most significant work. It is written in an artistic style and recounts the defeat of the penultimate Mamluk sultan Qansuh al-Ghuri in the war with the Ottoman ruler Selim I and the subsequent occupation of Syria and Egypt by the Ottomans. In the work, Ibn Zunbul takes the greatest interest in two topics. First, he examines the causes of the conflict, which broke out between Selim I and Qansuh al-Ghuri and led to the collapse of the Mamluk empire. Second, Ibn Zunbul pose the question why the Mamluks lost the war against the Ottomans. Despite his undisguised admiration for the fighting qualities of the Mamluks as knights, their combat tactics and courage, he is forced to admit that they could not resist the firearms of the Ottomans, which they had been actively using for many decades. Ibn Zunbul’s “History” is one of three works in Arabic written by contemporaries that detail the Ottoman conquest of Egypt. The author attempts to define the significance of Ibn Zunbul’s work as a source in the history of Egypt in the first half of the 16th century.

The khwarezmians in medieval arabic and persian manuscripts

The article examines the historical role of the Khwarezm people in the socio-political life of the Middle East countries of the 1330s and 1360s based on the Medieval Arabic and Persian manuscripts. It is known, the brave Jalal al-Din Mingburnu, the last Shah of the Khwarezmian dynasty, had already gathered a ten-thousand-strong army of the Khwarezmians outside of Khwarezm, and he was repeatedly engaged in the battle with the Mongols and won their invasion further to West into the Arab world. But he died in 1231, and his army roamed all over the Middle East, serving either the Seljuq empire sultans, or the Ayyubid princes in Syria (Sham) who entered into an internecine struggle for thecentral power in Syria and Egypt. The Khwarezmians helped the Ayyubids defeat the crusaders, liberate the Holy Muslim city of al-Quds and several fortress cities from them, and later they inflict a crushing overthrow the Mongols who entered the Arab lands. These important events are reflected in detail in the historical chronicles by al-Maqrizi, Ibn Iyas, al-Khanbali, as-Suyuti, Ibn Taghriberdi, al-Khamadani and many other historians of the Mamluk period of the 13–15th centuries, associated with the arrival of the Mamluk Turks in Egypt and Syria. These works repeatedly emphasize the crucial role of the Khwarezmians in the historical arena of the Middle East in the 1330-60th, when they were considered to be a formidable military force in the fateful battles for the peoples of this region. The authors of the Chronicles also pay great attention to certain historical figures, which they concede to be of Khwarezm origin, such as the Egyptian Sultana Shajarat ad-Dur and the Mamluk Sultan Sayf ad-din Qutuz. Qutuz, along with his emirs, including the Khwarezmians, won a crushing victory over the Mongols in the town of Ayn Jalut in 1260, and stopped their victorious march through the Arab world. The chronicles unanimously state that Qutuz's real name is Mahmood Ibn Mamdood and he comes from the Khwarezmshah dynasty, as he is the son of Jalal

ABOUT MEDIEVAL EGYPTIAN HISTORIANS

This article is dedicated to the life and work of historians of the Mamluk period (1250-1517) in Egypt and the rich heritage left by them. In the XIII-XV centuries, Egypt had a special place among the countries of the Middle East due to the activities of the Mamluks. The prestige of the Mamluk sultans increased due to their victories in the fght against the Crusaders and the Mongols in the Middle East. The establishment of Mamluk rule in the history of Egypt, the growth of the superiority of military Mamluks in the country, the rise of the Bakhrit Mamluk sultans (1250-1382) and the political processes of the Burjit (Circassian) Mamluk period (1282-1517) are of particular interest for s this study. This article provides extensive information on the activities and works of medieval historians such as Abu alMahasin, Ibn Daud Al-Sayraf, Abd Ar-Rahman As-Sahawi, Jalal ad-Din As-Suyuti, Ibn Iyas Muhammad ibn Ahmad and Ibn Zanbal Ar-Rummal, Ali ibn Ahmad Ibn al-Asir, Abd Ar-Rahman Ibn Khaldun, al-Umari, Shahab ad-din alKalkashandi, Taki ad-din Al-Makrizi, Az-Zahiri, Khalil ibn Shahin. Relevance: After Uzbekistan gained independence, orientalists have new opportunities to search, study and disseminate information about Islam and the history of Islam among the general public. When studying the period of the history of the Mamluks in Egypt, many aspects of the history of Mavaraunnahr of that time are also revealed. Studying the primary sources containing information on this topic makes it possible to objectively evaluate the political, social and economic processes of this period. Methods. The article uses generally accepted historical methods based on the principles of historicity, structurality and objectivity. Conclusions: Also, it must be pointed out that objective coverage of the history of this period, in addition to the historical works of the above authors of the 13th-15th centuries, is facilitated by the study of various scientifc treatises, commentaries, shortened versions of works (almukhtasar), dictionaries, prose and poetic works.

Al-Ḥadīth al-Mursal According to Imᾱm al-Mizzī in his Book Tuḥfat al-Ashrᾱf, (Descriptive Study)

Jamāl al-DīnAbū al-ḤajjājYūsuf ibn al-ZakīʻAbd al-Raḥmān al-Mizzī.Was a Syrian muhaddith and the foremost `Ilm al-rijāl Islamic scholar.Al-Mizzī was born near Aleppo in 1256 under the reign of the last Ayyubid emir An-Nasir Yusuf. In his childhood he moved with his family to the village of al-Mizza outside Damascus, where he was educated in Qur’ān and fiqh. In his twenties he began his studies to become a muḥaddith and learned from the masters. He travelled across the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt, Syria (الشَّام), and Ḥijāz and became the greatest `Ilm al-rijāl (عِلْمُ الرِّجال) scholar of the Muslim world and an expert grammarian and philologist of Arabic.His famous book is Tuhfatul Ashraf, where he has collected all the Mursal hadiths from the different hadith books. I will discuss in this article what were the method of Imam Mizzi in collecting the hadith.We should know that, Imam Mizzi has not only compiled the Mursal Hadiths here, but also collected the all Maqtoo’ and Maqoof Hadith, and Athar of many Companions. Now question is that, how accurate was he in compiling all those mursal, maktoo’ and maoqoof hadiths? InshaAllah we will be tried to find out its answer here in this article, and we will describe them with examples.

Arabic as a Language of the South Asian Chancery: Bahmani Communications to the Mamluk Sultanate

Abstract A growing body of literature on trade and cultural exchange between the Indian Ocean regions has already contributed significantly to our understanding of these processes and the role of language and writing within them. Yet, the question remains how Arabic correspondence played a part in communications between South Asian powers and the rulers in the Red Sea region. In order to begin filling this lacuna, this article studies epistolary writings from the Bahmani Sultanate (748/1347-934/1528) to the Mamluk Sultanate (648/1250-922/1517) during the second half of the ninth/fifteenth century. The contextualisation and discussion of three letters render insight both into the (up to now unstudied) issues at play in Bahmani-Mamluk relations and into the nature of these Arabic texts.

تحديد مکان المعرکة وزمانها في عصر المماليک البحرية

قامت الدولة المملوکية استجابة لظروف سياسية وعسکرية؛ فقد نشأت وسط حروب عديدة هددت البلاد الإسلامية، فأصبحت دولة حربية بالدرجة الأولى، وهذا جعلها ذات طابع حربي قوى، واستطاعت أن تکون جيشا قويا، ولعل أهم ما تميزت به العسکرية المملوکية هي سياسة إعداد الخطط العسکرية التي تحقق لهم التمکين والنصر، ومنها مهمة اختيار الزمان والمکان للمعرکة؛حيث کان السلطان المملوکي يعقد مجلس شورى الحرب مع الأمراء ليتفق معهم لوضع خطة قبل لقاء العدو وکيفية سير المعرکة وتحديد الزمان والمکان. وقد کان لهذه المهمة تأثيرا على سير المعرکة ونهايتها سواء بالانتصار أو الهزيمة،حيث تبدو لنا هذه المهمة أقوى بکثير من الاستعداد العسکري وإعداد تشکيلات الجيش. الکلمات المفتاحية: مماليک- المغول – الصليبيون – أرمينية – الظاهر بيبرس – قلاوون – عين جالوت – قيسارية – أرسوف. Abstract: The Mamluk state was established in response to political and military circumstances. It arose in the midst of many wars that threatened the Islamic countries, and became a war state in the first place, and this made it a strong war character, and was able to be a strong army, and perhaps the most important feature of the Mamluk military is the policy of preparing military plans that achieve empowerment and victory for them, including the task of choosing time And the place for the battle, where the Mamluk Sultan used to hold a war consultative council with the princes in order to agree with them to develop a plan before meeting the enemy, how the battle would proceed, and determining the time and place. This mission had an impact on the course of the battle and its end, whether by victory or defeat, as this mission seems to us much stronger than the military preparation and preparation of army formations.

The Phenomenon of Dynasties of Jewish Doctors in the Mamluk Period (1250–1517)

Abstract This article discusses the phenomenon of dynasties of Jewish physicians in the Late Middle Ages in Egypt and Syria. Based on Muslim Arabic historiographical literature on the one hand, and Jewish sources such as Genizah documents on the other, this paper reconstructs fourteen dynasties of Jewish physicians that were active in the Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517). Examination of the families reveals that the most distinguished dynasties of court physicians were of Jewish origin, and had to convert to Islam during the Mamluk period. Moreover, the office of the “Head of the Physicians” was occupied mainly by members of these convert Jewish dynasties. This situation stands in stark contrast to the pre-Mamluk period, in which dynasties of unconverted Jewish court physicians flourished. However, Jewish sources reveal that dynasties of doctors who were also communal leaders continued to be active also during the Mamluk period.