Mamluk Sultanate Research Articles

Louis IX and the transition from Ayyubid to Mamluk sultanate – part II

Louis IX and the transition from Ayyubid to Mamluk sultanate – part II

The Representation of the Space of the Parties by Mamluk Chancery Secretaries in Documents and Works Concerning Relations between the Sultanate and Christian Powers

Abstract For a long time, scholarship has illustrated the representation of territoriality in diplomatic relations between the Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517) and Christian powers with the traditional paradigm “abode of Islam/abode of war.” The historiographical narrative of the diyār (abodes) has recently been reconsidered by scholars who have examined different kinds of sources but have barely investigated chancery documents. When we look at diplomatic sources and works written by secretaries of the Mamluk chancery, references to diyār on religious grounds are practically inexistent. The territories of the sultanate and the Christian powers are often defined by other kinds of categories. This paper examines how “space” and consequently the boundaries between the Mamluks and the Christian states were geographically and symbolically interpreted and described. This approach is aimed at understanding the criteria according to which the sultanate represented and legitimized its relations with non-Muslim powers.

Gift of the Mamelukes: Animal ambassades as vectors of exotic fauna introductions in the Spanish Middle Ages

The number of exotic animal species that were introduced in Iberia during the Middle Ages constitute a defectively documented area of research, mostly addressed through historiographic methods. In this paper we evidence that even in the case of large, exotic animals exchanged as gifts among dignitaries the documentary data can be painfully incomplete. This is the case of the animal embassy that the Mamluk sultan Baybars al Bunduqdari sent in 1261 to the Castilian king Alfonso X. Although the written sources do not specify the complete list of species nor the reasons for mentioning some but not others, documentary and iconographic data suggest that, in addition to an elephant, a giraffe and a zebra, this lot included, in a decreasing order of probability, a lion, a dromedary, an ostrich, and a Nile crocodile. If such conspicuous beasts could pass unnoticed in a royal chronicle, one may contend that even in the most thoroughly documented cases, written sources may refer but a minimal fraction of the animals translocated into Iberia during the Medieval period. Such information vacuum stresses the difficulties of granting “indigenous” status to species traditionally assumed to constitute elements of the Iberian fauna when their historical contingencies are defectively known, a matter of concern for the current rewilding debate in Spain.

Мавзолеи представителей мамлюкской элиты, связанных с историей Золотой Орды

Purpose: To introduce into scientific circulation information and photographic records of the mausoleums of representatives of the Mamluk elite who were associated with the history of the Golden Horde. Research materials: Medieval Arabic-language sources, the work of Taqi ad-din al-Makrizi “Kitab al-mawaiz wa-l-itibar fi dhikr al-khitat wa-al-asar” (“Book of teachings and edifications in the story of quarters and monuments”), photographic materials of mausoleums. Results and scientific novelty: This article presents the history of representatives of the Mamluk elite who played a significant role in relations between the Golden Horde and Egypt. This study presents mausoleums that in medieval Arabic writings are presented under the name «qubba» which was characteristic of the Muslim culture of the Middle Ages. The presented mausoleums were built in the 13th–14th centuries. and were intended not only as burial crypts, but also as sites to place kuttabs and public drinking fountains. It has been noted that the burials of the rulers of Egypt were carried out in integral memorial complexes, consisting of a mosque, madrasah, and khanqah. Such Mamluk sultans as al-Mansur Qalawun, an-Nasir Qalawun, Barquq were buried in these. Emirs and nobles built separate funerary complexes for themselves during their lifetimes: for example, the mausoleum of Emir Qusun, the Golden Horde princess Tulbya, etc. Some of the burial complexes are open to the public today while others require serious restoration. It is important to note that the Mamluks used various methods and architectural solutions when creating memorial complexes. The mausoleum remained the most significant element of the architectural ensemble. The mausoleum was either separate or adjacent to the building, but in any case it occupied a large area. The construction of such memorial complexes suggests that the Mamluks, most of whom were Turks, were known as zealous connoisseurs of culture who patronized the development of art and architecture.

“The Arabs who Witnessed the Conquest Were Lost in the Passage of Time”: Al‑Maqrīzī’s History of the Rural Tribesmen of Egypt

In al‑Bayān wa‑l‑iʿrāb ʿan mā fī arḍ Miṣr min al‑aʿrāb, or “The Book of Clear Arabic Expression regarding the Arab Tribes of Egypt”, a work that currently enjoys wide circulation, al‑Maqrīzī (d. 1442) listed the Arab and Berber tribes found in the late medieval Egyptian countryside according to their geographic locations. This paper sets out to explain al‑Maqrīzī’s aims in compiling the Bayān, considering the social and political context of the Egyptian countryside during the Mamluk period. I argue that al‑Maqrīzī was probably writing with a royal patron in mind, and that he sought to downplay the prestige of the Arab and Berber tribes of his own time while highlighting the failure of their past rebellions against the authority of the Mamluk sultans.

Comparing the Crisis of 806/1403–1404 and the Fatimid Fitna (450–466/1058–1073): Al‑Maqrīzī as a Historian of the Fatimids

Modern scholars often treat al‑Maqrīzī as an important, if not the most important, historian of the Fatimids, especially given the poor survival of sources from the Fatimid period, particularly for the Egyptian period of their rule. However, historians have emphasised how al‑Maqrīzī was heavily influenced by crises that occurred in his own present. Al‑Maqrīzī’s Ḫiṭaṭ, Sulūk and Iġāṯa all contain criticisms of Mamluk Sultans contemporary to al‑Maqrīzī and a general pessimism about the state of Egypt in his own day. This article argues that this critique and pessimism shapes how al‑Maqrīzī documented Fatimid history in ways that can profoundly influence how we understand the Fatimid past. It takes the Fatimid fitna of 450–466/1058–1073 as a case study and underlines how one must compare across al‑Maqrīzī’s works to understand how his present has influenced how he shapes the past. The chapter is broken into four parts. Part 1 examines the text shared between al‑Maqrīzī’s works (which can be analysed digitally), underlining that al‑Maqrīzī’s more polemical views in the Iġāṯa could be copied into his other works. Part 2 discusses how al‑Maqrīzī’s Ḫiṭaṭ can be understood as a work of remembrance in the face of crisis, a schema in which the Fatimids feature prominently. Part 3 digitally analyses the mention of dates to show how the crisis of 806/1403–1404 is a major theme in the Ḫiṭaṭ, and that this text was likely conceived around the same time as the Iġāṯa was written. Part 4 then utilises close reading to show how the Iġāṯa frames that account of the Fatimid fitna in a way that mirrors the crisis of 806—as al‑Maqrīzī saw it. This framing of the fitna is found in parts of the Ḫiṭaṭ. However, as the article concludes, there are multiple framings of the fitna in the Ḫiṭaṭ that reflect how al‑Maqrīzī’s views had evolved over time. Al‑Maqrīzī’s accounts of Fatimid history should, therefore, be treated and studied carefully in the light of his more critical views.

Abandonment as a Sufi Concept in the Poems of Mamluk Sultan Kansu Gavri

Memlûkler kendi döneminde dünyanın en büyük siyasi güçlerinden biri olmanın yanı sıra, ilim ve sanat faaliyetleri bakımından da Türk tarihinin en parlak çağlarından birini temsil etmektedir. Elbette bunda İslâm medeniyetinin diğer merkezlerinde yaşanan yıkım ve karmaşanın Memlûk topraklarını bir sığınak hâline getirmiş olması kadar, Memlûk idarecilerinin âlim ve sanatkârlara gösterdikleri ilgi ve verdikleri destek de etkili olmuştur. Bazıları bizzat şiirle de uğraşan Memlûk sultanları içinde tarihî ve edebî açıdan en dikkate değer simalardan biri şüphesiz Kansu Gavrî’dir. Yavuz Sultan Selim’e karşı kaybettiği savaşla hatırlanan ve devletinin yıkılışıyla özdeşleşen bu Memlûk hükümdarı, aynı zamanda üç ayrı dilde divan tertip edecek kadar şiirleri olan bir şairdir. Hayatı 15. Yüzyıl’ın ikinci yarısıyla 16. Yüzyıl’ın başında geçen Kansu Gavrî’nin Türk dilinde yazdığı şiirler, aynı dönemdeki Anadolu Türkçesinin dil özelliklerini yansıtmaktadır. Gavrî’nin şiirlerinde tasavvufi konu ve kavramların yoğun varlığı dikkat çeker. Bu çalışmada, tasavvufun bir anlayış ve tutum olarak doğuşu ile bir ahlâk olarak yaşanmasında, hattâ kurumlaştığı dönemlerden itibaren bir sistem olarak uygulanmasında her zaman temel bir yeri ve işlevi olan “terk” kavramı etrafında Sultan Gavrî’inin şiirlerinin incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Sultan şairlerin iç dünyasını özgün biçimde yansıtması dolayısıyla şiirler ekseninde, hayatının en önemli savaşını kaybetmiş mağlup bir sultanın dünya, ahiret, varlık ve benlik konularındaki duygu ve yaklaşımlarına dair bazı ayrıntıların değerlendirilmesine çalışılmıştır.

The Political Situation of Badaun during the Mamluk Era (602-689 AH / 1206-1290 AD)

Objectives: This study aims to shed light on the political situation of the city of Badaun: the extent of its connection with the capital Delhi, the number of rulers who governed it during the Mamluk era (602-689 AH/1206-1290 AD), and its most prominent governors, especially those who later became sultans.
 Methods: Relying on Arabic, Persian, Urdu, and English sources and references, the study adopts the historical approach. It is divided into three sections. The first provides background information on the location of Badaun, while the second focuses on the Islamic conquest of Badaun during the Ghurid era (543-612 AH/1148-1215 AD). The third section tackles the political situation of Badaun during the Mamluk era (602-689 AH/1206-1290 AD).
 Results: Due to its significance, the city was strongly connected with the capital Delhi. Badaun was ruled by no less than fourteen governors, the first of whom is Qutbuddin Aibak and the last King Baqbak Sargandar. Not only were its rulers considered among the most important governors of India, they were so respected and valued by the sultans of Delhi that some of them became sultans.
 Conclusions: Badaun was considered one of the most important fiefdoms, allocated to powerful rulers in the first half of the seventh century AH / thirteenth century AD. Its most prominent governors include Qutbuddin Aibak (the founder of the Mamluk Sultanate), Shams al-Din al-Tamash, Rukn al-Din Firuz Shah, and Ghiyath al-Din Balban, all of whom who assumed the throne of the Sultanate of Delhi.

A Decisive Phase of Intense Diplomatic Negotiations between the Mamluk Sultanate and Western Powers (the Crown of Aragon, and the Republics of Genoa and Venice), 1288–1293/AH 687–692

A Decisive Phase of Intense Diplomatic Negotiations between the Mamluk Sultanate and Western Powers (the Crown of Aragon, and the Republics of Genoa and Venice), 1288–1293/AH 687–692

The Merchant’s Lamp and the Sufi’s Drum: Two Tales of Mediaeval Damascus

Abstract A few artefacts can be connected to mediaeval Syria, and more specifically Damascus, through their inscriptions because they mention the city as a place of manufacture or name an individual who lived there. This is notably the case for two hitherto neglected inscribed objects in the Musée du Louvre, dating to the Mamluk sultanate, which are studied in this article: an enamelled glass lamp and a metal drum. New identifications of their recipients, documented through historical sources, bring light to their particular stories and provide new references for studying the material and social culture during this period.

From the History of the Foreign Policy of Georgian Kings in the 1st Half of the 14th Century

The present paper focuses on the diplomatic relations between Georgia and the Sultan of Egypt. The Georgian envoys were sent to Egypt several times – in 1305/6, 1310/11, 1316/7, 1320. Their goal was restitution of the Monastery of the Holy Cross in Jerusalem confiscated in 1270s by Baybars I, the Sultan of Mamluk Egypt. Considering the issue the author ofthe paper comes to the following conclusions: In all cases the envoys were sent by the king of the West Georgia, Constantine,son to David, who achieved the goal in negotiations with the Mamluk Sultan; Giorgi the Brilliant began his activities on the Holy Land after establishing peaceful relations between Ilkhans and Mamluk Sultan under the treaty concluded in 1323. The latter was carried out with the active parng Giorgi V. Giorgi the Brilliant got independence by the flexible diplomatic policy, alliance with Ilkhans in the confrontation between the Golden Horde and Ilkhans and determining his right function in that situation; “King of kings” David, who is mentioned is a renovator of the Monastery of the Holy Cross in the bead-roll of the Monastery, is not David VIII, as it was supposed in the scholarly literature, but David IX, son of Giorgi the Brilliant.

Religious Policy of the Mamluk Sultan Baybars (1260–1277 AC)

This study focuses on the religious policy of the Mamluk Sultan Rukn al-Din Baybars (d. 1277), and its application throughout his rule in Egypt and Syria (Bilād al-Shām). This study also discusses the impact of this policy and its benefit for Muslims and Islam in general in the region. Dealing with the character of Baybars of Mamluk origin is very important in this study to obtain the required answers to the questions related to the Islamic character of Mamluk rule in the regions of the Middle East in the Middle Ages. Although Baybars’ background was as a slave (mamlūk), who was not familiar with the religion of Islam, he had to prove his ability to act as a leader of an Islamic state. Baybars worked to implement the principles of Islam according to the Quran and the tradition of the Prophet (sunna), thus exploiting his status as an Islamic leader and as Sultan during his reign. Baybars was strict in his religious policy toward those who committed forbidden acts according to the Islamic religion, and he was keen to punish them and implement the Sharīʿa as required, in cooperation with the ʿulamā. Baybars was given relevant degrees and titles he deserved by the revived Abbasid Caliph in Cairo, such as a “holy warrior” (Mujāhid), “partner of emir of believers/the Caliph” (Qasīm Amīr al-Mu’minīn), and other religious titles that testify his high-ranking religious status as defender of Islam.

Studies on the History and Culture of the Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517), edited by Stephan Conermann and Toru Miura

Studies on the History and Culture of the Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517), edited by Stephan Conermann and Toru Miura

Письмо Тамерлана мамлюкскому султану Баркуку и ответное письмо Баркука Тамерлану от 795 г.х. / 1393 года

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to introduce the Russian translation of Emir Timur’s letter to the Mamluk Sultan Barquq and Barquq’s response letter to Tamerlane, both written in 795 AH / 1393, into scientific circulation. Research materials: The texts of these letters were discovered within the pages of al-Makrizi’s work “Kitab al-Suluk li Ma’rifat Duwal al-Muluk” (“The Book of Ways to Knowledge of the Ruling Dynasties”) Later, these texts were transcribed by Ibn Taghriberdi and Ibn Sirafi. Results and scientific novelty: This article examines the Arabic text of the letters and provides a translation into Russian of Emir Timur’s message to Mamluk Sultan Barquq and Barquq’s response letter from 1393. Emir Timur’s letter, in particular, demanded humility and submission from the Mamluk Sultanate. It’s worth noting that V.G. Tizenhausen, despite using “As-Suluk” by al-Makrizi, did not include the texts of these letters, suggesting they were unrelated to the history of the Golden Horde. However, considering that diplomatic relations were maintained during this period between the Golden Horde and Mamluk Egypt, and that Mamluk Sultan Barquq supported the Golden Horde’s Khan Toktamysh, these letters could provide valuable information about the relationship between these two states. This study marks the first Russian translation of both texts. While Emir Timur’s message may not contain sensational revelations, it does clarify essential details about the late 14th-century situation and contributes to a better understanding of the historical ties between the Horde and the Mamluk Sultanate.

The Exchange of Gifts between Christians and Muslims on Lusignan and Venetian Cyprus 1192–1517

In this paper which comes under the theme of macro-historical perspectives and Mediterranean history I shall discuss the exchange of gifts in three sections: first between the Lusignan kings of Cyprus and the sultans of Mamluk Egypt and Syria, between the Lusignan kings and the Turkish emirs of Anatolia, and thirdly between the Venetian rulers of Cyprus, including Queen Catherine Cornaro, and the Mamluk sultans for the period postdating 1473. Many of these exchanges of gifts took place during times of war, sometimes during the prelude to hostilities and sometimes immediately after their end. In addition, exchanges of gifts between Christian and Muslim rulers occasionally took place at times of peace. The reasons why gifts were exchanged, the type of gifts exchanged when these are described, not an invariable occurrence, and the symbolism underlying these exchanges of gifts will also be analyzed where possible. Furthermore, occasions when the recipient refused to accept the gift and why it was rejected shall also be examined. Where possible, comparisons with the exchange of gifts taking place in other societies and countries of the Eastern Mediterranean will be alluded to and discussed. In terms of source materials, the Cypriot chronicles of the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries will form the principal source but reference shall also be made to diplomatic correspondence of the period under discussion. The exchanges of gifts normally took place within a diplomatic setting, this being the arrival of embassies, and gifts were sent sometimes to the close advisers of a ruler who could influence his policy and decision-making. On certain occasions, however, the exchanges of gifts could take place outside of this diplomatic context, for example as an expression of gratitude for assistance received.

الحياة العلمية في مصر والشام والحجاز في عهد السلطان المملوكي الناصر بن قلاوون (684-741ھ)

The Mamluk state enjoyed several studies by many researchers, and most of them were confined to the Levant, Egypt and the Hijaz, and from here the researcher had the idea of ​​studying this field to be a subject for a master's degree. (684-741 AH).
 This study included an introduction, a preface, four chapters, and a conclusion.
 w As for the introduction, it includes the importance of the research, the reason for choosing it, then an explanation of the difficulties that the researcher faced, and the questions that the researcher will answer through the study, then an analytical study of previous studies and commenting on them, and the aim of this study.
 w introduction, I devoted it to introducing King Al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun, and to explaining the era in which he lived from the political, social and cultural perspectives.
 The first chapter: I dedicated it to explaining the general conditions in Egypt during the Mamluk era, in which I dealt with a number of investigations.
 I talked about social conditions and showed the layers of Mamluk society in Egypt and their customs, as well as studying the economic conditions of the commercial movement that was at the time.
 As for the religious situation, I devoted the talk in it to the judiciary and religious positions, then I talked about the center of Sufism in Egypt, especially Alexandria, and showed the impact of each of them on Scientific movement.
 As for the second chapter: I dedicated it to explaining the manifestations of the general conditions in the Hijaz during the Mamluk era, and it includes several topics, which I devoted to talking about the political conditions that the Hijaz witnessed during this period, and the importance of Medina, the city of Jeddah and Taif, and the relationship between them.
 Then I talked about the social conditions in the Hijaz and its cities. In Medina and Taif, they had customs and traditions, and about the importance of the city of Jeddah and its strategic location. As for the economic conditions, I devoted it to studying the Hajj seasons and their importance and effects, and how the economic conditions varied between high prices and cheap ones, and that the high prices were dominant.
 The third chapter: I devoted it to studying the general conditions in the Levant during the Mamluk era, in which the Levant became a center for global trade, the political conditions in the country, and how the Mamluk princes in Egypt and the Levant always united in order to confront the external dangers that threatened the Near East entity in that age.
 In the social situation, I was exposed to how the social classes in the Levant were affected as a result of the plague. As for the economic conditions, I studied the influence of the Levant on all aspects of life by the feudal system. As for the religious situation, I studied in it how the era of the Mamluk sultans was considered a golden age for religious life, and the Levantine society was closely and strongly linked to the scholars.
 The fourth chapter: I devoted it to the study of the scientific movement during the reign of Sultan Al-Nasir bin Qalawun, as it was distinguished by a great reformist success on all levels, by examining the reality of the scientific movement in Egypt, the Hijaz, and the Levant during this period.
 As for the conclusion, I devoted it to stating the most important results and recommendations of the research.

Paradigma Hukum Dalam Perspektif Taqi Al-Din Al-Subki

The elements contained in a paradigm become a mode of thought, mode of inquiry, and mode of knowing. Through this paradigm, it will be seen how the conception and systematic thinking of scientists when looking at an object or a certain framework in understanding something. In the paradigm of Islamic law, there are broad and permissive legal principles and provisions, leaving room for human existence related to social and historical developments.Al-Subki was a Qadi, appointed by the Mamluk sultan, subject to a condition (whether express or implied) that necessitated restrictions on the Shafi'i school of thought. In addition, al-Subki is a mujtahid fi al-mazhab, that is, someone who is able to build a paradigm of rational law based on the elements of ikhtilaf in a school

Louis IX and the transition from Ayyubid to Mamluk sultanate – Part I*

Louis IX and the transition from Ayyubid to Mamluk sultanate – Part I*

Manuscript of the Osman's Quran in the history of the Golden Horde

The article deals with the issue around the list of the Osman's Quran (Mushaf ʻUthman) in the history of the Golden Horde. On the basis of information from the medieval Arabic sources, it is proved that one of the copies of the Osman's Quran was presented to the Golden Horde ruler Berke by the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt Baybars as a sign of friendship and respect for the fact that Berke Khan became a Muslim and spread the traditions of Islam in the territory of the Golden Horde. The history of this list of the Quran is mysterious, and many scientists and religious figures turned to it, as well as the Tatar historian-educator Shihab al-Din al-Marjani. The article is supposed to consider the relationship between the information of the medieval Arab chroniclers and the statements of Sh. Marjani about the authenticity of the copy of the Quran, which is today on the territory of Uzbekistan.

Rural Administration, Tax-Farming, and the mutadarriks in Egypt from the Late 14th to the Early 16th Centuries

Abstract This paper focuses on the category of Egyptian provincial officials called mutadarrik who emerged in the late 14th century, to understand the relationship between the government and rural areas, and the state of rural society in late medieval Egypt. After the mid-14th century, the iqṭāʿ land system underwent a major transformation. Amidst repeated plagues, declining agricultural production, rampant political instability, and the rise of Arab tribes in the provinces, the financial and local administrations of the Mamluk Sultanate underwent a substantial process of restructuring. This paper shows that the emergence of the mutadarrik was closely related to these changes in the administration as well as in rural society.